Cadastral Trends: A Synthesis

Transcription

1 Published in The Australian Surveyr, Vl. 4, N. 1, (1999) Cntents Page Cadastral Trends: A Synthesis LISA TING PhD Candidate Department f Gematics The University f Melburne IAN P. WILLIAMSON Prfessr f Surveying and Land Infrmatin Department f Gematics The University f Melburne Abstract An understanding f the human histry behind cadastral systems is essential t understanding the dynamism f the humankind t land relatinship and hw this has driven and will drive cadastral refrms. The cadastral cncept has develped significantly ver the past few decades. During this time these systems, whether develped frm a land market r land taxatin perspective, have increasingly played a multi-purpse rle. Since the time humankind learned t settle n land, cadastres have develped and evlved t suit sciety s needs. Changes in the relatinship f humankind t land have invked matching evlutinary changes in the functin f cadastres. The mst recent examples are current wrld cncerns f envirnmental management, sustainable develpment and scial justice. Due t this, multi-purpse rle cadastres are increasingly seen as fundamental t ecnmic develpment, envirnmental management and scial stability in bth the develped and develping wrlds. This paper reviews the trends in the humankind/land relatinship and hw these have affected the develpment and applicatins f cadastres. Intrductin The relatinship between humankind and land will always be dynamic (see Figure 1) [Ting et al., 1998a] and has changed at different rates acrss cuntries and regins as a result f varying pressures and pririties in sciety. This paper will explre the majr phases f the relatinship between humankind and land and draw crrelatin with the majr evlutinary steps in the cadastral systems that supprted thse majr phases. There are fur majr phases: Human settlement during the agricultural revlutin thrugh t the feudal system, tied human beings t land in a physical way. Land was the primary symbl and surce f wealth. In this phase, the cadastral system s rle was t publicly recrd wnership as well as fr fiscal purpses. The industrial revlutin began a prcess f breaking that strng physical tie t the land by turning land int mre f a cmmdity, albeit the mst valuable cmmdity and primary surce f capital. This envirnment gave birth t land markets and s cadastre tk n anther fcus a tl in land transfers.

2 The pst-wrld War II recnstructin and the ppulatin bm saw an increasing awareness f land as a scarce resurce that may nt be sufficient fr the needs f a grwing wrld ppulatin that was als increasingly mbile. With this came the increased interest in planning, particularly urban and reginal planning. This in turn created anther imprtant applicatin fr cadastre. The 1980s have seen a different twist in the cncern fr the scarcity f land. The fcus has turned t wider issues f envirnmental degradatin and sustainable develpment, as well as scial equity. All f these issues have the prbable effect f tempering shrt-term ecnmic imperatives. Planning issues have widened t include mre cmmunity interests and deepened t address mre detailed issues f land use. This has created a grwing need fr mre detailed infrmatin abut land and land use. The impact f these has been manifested in the desire fr multi-purpse cadastres. Figure 1 Cadastre: An Evlving Cncept "Cadastral systems are the fundatin and an integral cmpnent f parcel-based land infrmatin systems (LIS) that cntain a recrd f interests in land. These systems are a central cmpnent f the land administratin and land management systems in a state r jurisdictin" [Williamsn, 1990]. This statement shws hw far the applicatin f cadastral systems has evlved. Land as Wealth and Cadastre as Basic Recrd and Fiscal Tl As Grant stated in his paper n territriality: "Territriality is the primary expressin f scial pwer. Its changing functin helps us t understand the histrical relatinship between sciety and space. "Perhaps, thrughut histry, ne f the strngest drivers fr territriality and assciated expansinist claims is the desire fr cmmercial grwth." [Grant, 1997]. In the early stages f human settlement, land was undisputedly the primary surce f wealth and pwer. In that cntext, cadastre s primary functin was as a recrd f wnership and as a fiscal tl. It is imprtant t nte that the pint f the recrd was t prvide sme security f wnership as against the wrld and t d s, required a recrd which was publicly acknwledged and respected. Amng primitive tribes, ccupatin f land had t take place in the presence f the chief and elders [Larssn, 1996]. The earliest recrds f land wnership date back t the Ryal Registry f Ancient Egypt that was created in abut 3000BC whilst in China in 700AD the taxatin system was based n crp yields and land survey recrds [Larssn, 1996]. The Rmans carried ut a survey in 300AD t create a register f what lands the Rmans

3 cntrlled as well as using it as a basis fr fiscal recrds [Larssn, 1996]. The feudal system was extended and develped by the Nrmans after the Cnquest f England in All land was wned directly r indirectly by the king and he granted use f these lands t his subjects (and their heirs) in return fr the rendering f military r ther services [Ting et al., 1998a]. The remnants f that cncept lie in the fact that land in mdern-day England cntinues t be classified freehld r leasehld bth terms describe a frm f "tenancy". Karl Marx cmmented in "The German Idelgy" that: "The chief frm f prperty during the feudal epch cnsisted n the ne hand f landed prperty with serf labur chained t it, and n the ther f the labur f the individual with small capital cmmanding the labur f jurneymen" [Arthur, 1974]. Pwer in the feudal system vested in the institutinal and legal structures that were put in place by the cmbined interests f landhlders and the svereign [Davies and Furacre, 1995]. The Dmesday Bk was created after the Nrman Cnquest t develp a land register (there were n maps) that stated the wner s name, tenure, area and particulars fr assessment f the land fr the purpses f extracting feudal dues. In ther wrds, the cadastral register existed fr fiscal purpses and as a recrd f the territry f the kingdm. Henssen cnsidered that the philsphy behind the establishment f fiscal cadastres thrughut cntinental Eurpe in the early eighteenth century was the Physicrat mvement which held that land was the basis f all wealth and therefre land tax wuld be the basis fr raising funds t maintain sciety [Henssen, 1975]. Mapping was nt cmmn until 1807 when Naplen Bnaparte established the fundatins f Eurpean cadastre when he rdered the creatin f maps and cadastral recrds. During the Naplenic era, particular bdies were given the task f registering transfers and deeds f wnership. The recrds shwed the physical lcatin f parcels f land as well as wnership acrss France, arranged by parcel numbers, area, land use and land values per wner. It was this cmbinatin f registry recrds and maps that lay the fundatins fr mdernday cadastral systems. Accurate cadastral recrds were very imprtant fr prving wnership f land that in turn earned peple substantial privileges such as citizenship. The cncept f citizenship in the classical perid intrduced t Ancient Greece the idea that prperty wnership shuld be linked t citizenship, as defined in its earliest frms by Aristtle and Plat in the thirteenth and furteenth centuries [Manville, 1990:94-96]. "It is the wnership f prperty which cnfers full citizenship since it is prperty which meant that the citizen did nt require manual labur t survive; the prpertied citizen culd thus devte himself t public service withut the distractin f labur [Turner, 1986:14]. By 500BC, Emperr Servius Tullius cnferred citizenship n the Pleb (unprivileged aliens dmiciled in Rme) [Heater, 1990:16], but implementatin was anther matter. Even in the Dutch Republic f the 1700s, the frces f ligarchy cntinued t draw a distinctin between citizens and the ppulace r rabble [Heater, 1990:29]. The cntrary attitude t linking prperty and citizenship was nt really fully develped until the twentieth century because prir t that it was generally agreed that citizens shuld pssess an adequate amunt f prperty t bring n a tangible stake in maintaining stability [Heater, 1990: ]. These basic recrd and fiscal tl ratinales cntinued t be the basis fr cadastral recrds until the develpment f land markets arund the time f the Industrial Revlutin. Land as Cmmdity and Cadastre as Land Market Tl The usurping f land s psitin as the primary surce f wealth began with the Industrial Revlutin and the rise f capital. This in turn created a further imprtant functin f the cadastre as a tl t supprt the grwth f land markets and land transfers. The Industrial Revlutin came at a time f agricultural change as well as industrial inventin [Ting et al., 1998a]. There were significant land management changes which led t imprved prductivity such as the enclsure mvement f the 1700s acrss Eurpe and the United Kingdm (UK) t create larger and mre prductive plts. In the UK, fr example, abut 7,000,000 acres f land were enclsed between 1760 and 1845; these were made mre prductive by mixed agriculture, which included crp rtatin and alternating arable/pasture use [Tynbee, 1884]. The imprtance f land as the surce f all wealth changed in the face f the rise f capital. Land became an imprtant surce f capital and thus the emphasis mved away frm the

4 physical wnership f land t the cnversin f land t capital that culd facilitate mbility. The land administratin and prperty law systems which were designed t preserve attachment t land int perpetuity, became t cumbersme and unwieldy. All manners f methds were used t vercme thse limitatins by reinterpreting existing instruments such as the Statute f Uses [Ting et al., 1998a]. Deeds f wnership were nw imprtant nt nly t prve wnership s a persn culd remain n the land as against thers, but became the crnerstne f the land market. Cadastral recrds, including deeds, served t prvide sme prf f wnership that then established the necessary trust t transact the sale f land. The Trrens System, which suited 19 th century paradigms in a yung cuntry such as Australia with large tracts f unsurveyed and untitled land, is interesting because in a sense, it is an example f legal change respnding t sciety s needs, then prpelling further changes in the land markets and land administratin, including surveying methds [Ting et al., 1998a]. The Trrens System was revlutinary fr its ability t deliver certainty as well as cheaper and speedier land registratin. The pre-existing Deeds methd required that lawyers trace the trail f dcuments back as far as pssible t determine whether there was gd title t be passed n [Ting et al., 1998a]. The intended effect this had n the cadastre was t create a land register and maps that wuld state unequivcally the descriptin f every parcel f registered land and its wner. Tgether with the gvernment guarantee f accuracy, the cadastre and land administratin system develped based n Trrens greatly assisted the develpment f the land market and fulfilled clnial sciety s desire t rapidly settle the vastness that was Australia. In shrt, cadastre nw existed t facilitate land transfers (land markets) as well as serving the purpses f recrding wnership and land taxatin. Land as Scarce Resurce and Cadastre as Planning Tl The pst WWII recnstructin perid and subsequent ppulatin bm saw the need fr better spatial planning, particularly in urban areas. There was an increased need fr land administratin laws and systems t address bradacre subdivisins. Land title systems had t evlve t accmmdate the desire t wn a piece f prperty within a high-rise building cndminiums r strata subdivisins [Ting et al., 1998a]. T achieve this als required a cadastral system that culd describe wnership f space in three dimensins. The grwth f urban satellite cities with high-density husing and the increasing pressure n infrastructure by the sheer numbers f the urban ppulatins necessitated better urban planning. Regulatin f land use in the cmmunity invlves mre than the recgnitin f spillver effects n cntiguus land; the ther bjective is t prvide public amenities that are unlikely t be privately prduced and the ther is t increase efficiency by guiding develpment and redevelpment f land fr desirable purpses [Curtney, 1983:153]. The cadastre, as the recrd f land parcels and registry f wnership, became a useful tl (when teamed with large-scale maps) fr city planning and the delivery f vital services like electricity, water, sewerage and s frth. Thus a fcus n planning was added t the pre-existing applicatins f cadastre as a fiscal and land transfer tl. Land as Scarce Cmmunity Resurce and Cadastre as Land Management Tl As tday s sciety faces cntinuing land shrtages and resurce scarcity, the imperative exists t better manage and plan land use. The cncerns abut sustainable develpment and the envirnment are evident frm such internatinal instruments as Agenda 21 and the Habitat II Agenda. There are als cncerns fr scial equity such as indigenus and wmen s rights. Thinking has mved beynd giving mre peple the pssibility f wnership f space ver the same parcel f land (strata title). Cncern nw fcuses n hw the land can be better managed in a variety f circumstances, whether fr twn planning purpses r fr rural agricultural develpment. Fr example, the slutin t prblems faced by lwvalue agricultural lands in New Suth Wales, Australia, must include: sustainable land-use; cmprehensive integrated datasets t allw fr better decisin-making; simplified cst-effective peratin f the cadastre; and clearly defined, easily relcatable parcel bundaries supprted by an apprpriate lw-cst cadastral survey system [Harcmbe and Williamsn, 1998]. Nw sciety needs multi-purpse cadastres t answer its fiscal requirements, land transfer needs as well as

5 facilitating land management [NRC, 1983]. The achievement f a useful multi-purpse cadastre is made pssible by the ptential f the infrmatin revlutin and the technlgy that has cntinued t evlve with it. The mre difficult hurdles are the fundamental legal and institutinal refrms that will facilitate the data-sharing necessary t develp, supprt and maintain infrmatin fr a multi-purpse cadastre. In bth the Australian and Eurpean cntexts, cadastral systems are nw clsely linked with land valuatin systems. In the Eurpean cntext, cadastral systems were riginally cncerned with land valuatin fr taxatin purpses and later were linked t land registratin systems. In Australia, the reverse was usually the case althugh the end result, which is a clse relatinship between land registratin and land valuatin, is very similar [Williamsn, 1985]. Figure 2 shws the cumulative evlutin f the humankind/land relatinship and the cnsequent develpments in the evlutin f cadastres and the functins f cadastres. Figure 2: Main Phases in the Humankind/Land Relatinship and Cadastral Evlutin Trends fr the Future One f the key trends is cncern fr the envirnment. This demnstrates an increasing desire n the part f sciety t temper shrt-term ecnmic imperatives with ther pririties. This shift in thinking twards lnger term ecnmic planning is exemplified by Agenda 21, the seminal dcument that encapsulated the deliberatins f the 1992 United Natins Cnference at Ri de Janeir and the 1997 United Natins Summit in Japan n Glbal Warming [Ting et al., 1998b]. As the Wrld Bank stated: "Ecnmists have lng recgnised pllutin t be a negative externality. Withut sme frm f regulatry prtectin, the envirnment can becme an inncent victim f bad business practices" [Wrld Bank, 1997]. Increasingly, the trend is t define envirnmental cncerns mre widely and t inject them earlier int the planning prcess [Ting et al., 1998b]. One example is the Habitat II Agenda and Istanbul Declaratin n Human Settlements (1996) at the Secnd United Natins Cnference n Human Settlements where ne f the majr chapters (Chapter 5) was headed "envirnmentally sustainable, healthy and livable human settlements". The sectin n shelter delivery prgrams clearly states the necessity fr a legal framewrk f land use that addresses sciety s need t prmte efficient land markets as well as sustainable land use (at Article 77): "T prmte efficient land markets and the envirnmentally sustainable use f land, gvernments at the

6 apprpriate level shuld develp a legal framewrk f land use aimed at balancing the need fr cnstructin with the prtectin f the envirnment, minimizing risk and diversifying uses." Scial equity cncerns, particularly with respect t wmen and indigenus peples, have been highlighted in internatinal instruments such as the UN Scial Summit 1995: "Cmmitment 4(f): Recgnize and respect the right f indigenus peple t maintain and develp their identity, culture and interests, supprt their aspiratins fr scial justice and prvide an envirnment that enables them t participate in the scial, ecnmic and plitical life f their cuntry; Cmmitment 5(e): Remve the remaining restrictins n wmen s rights t wn land, inherit prperty r brrw mney, and ensure wmen s equal right t wrk;" Obviusly, t facilitate planning at that detailed level, there is a necessity fr a multi-purpse cadastre that prvides reliable infrmatin fr decisin-making. It shuld be nted that the need fr sustainable develpment planning ccurs increasingly n a glbal level. Apart frm the bvius envirnmental initiative f Agenda 21, there are ther particular issues f a glbal nature that multi-purpse cadastres culd help t address, and there is an increasing acknwledgement that cadastres have a significant rle t play in planning n land as well as ffshre [Hgsteden and Rbertsn, 1998]. One example f an ff-shre issue is the wrld fisheries crisis [PANOS, 1995]: "Arund 100 millin peple in develping cuntries are dependant n fisheries. They are its largest and prest stakehlders. But their livelihds are further under threat frm the general stagnatin in wrld catches and frm the large trawlers which verfish their waters...nine f the wrld s 17 fisheries are in serius decline with fur depleted cmmercially, accrding t the FAO...The glbal catch is f less value bth in terms f mney and nutritin than it was." In the same vein but clser t the traditinal issues f land-use planning is the imprtance f land fr fd prductin. FAO research in 1995 shwed that frm a glbal perspective, there are serius inequities in the use f resurces: "The wrld, as a whle, is getting steadily wealthier. By the early 1990s, abut 20 percent f the wrld's ppulatin mst f it in the develped wrld - received ver 80 percent f the wrld's incme, while the prest 20 percent received nly 1.4 percent. The develped cuntries cnsume 70 percent f the wrld's energy, 75 percent f its metals, 85 percent f its wd and 60 percent f its fd" [UNFAO, 1995]. In the lead-up t the 1996 Wrld Fd Summit, the FAO had stated: "althugh the wrld can prduce enugh fd fr everyne, 800 millin peple in develping cuntries are chrnically undernurished...the vast majrity f the undernurished live in cuntries that d nt grw enugh fd fr their ppulatins and cannt really affrd t fill the gap with imprts...at the same time, bilateral and multilateral assistance t agriculture in develping cuntries is declining." [IPS, 1995]. The trends twards develping multi-purpse cadastres t address planning fr sustainable develpment issues as well as fiscal and ecnmic imperatives is evident in a range f Western natins such as: Australia [Williamsn, 1996]; Canada [MacLauchlan and McLaughlin, 1998]; Denmark [Enemark, 1994]; Germany, Austria and Switzerland [Hawerk, 1995]; New Zealand [Rbertsn, 1996]. USA [NRC, 1983]; Acrss Eurpe, ne f the significant drivers f the multi-purpse cadastre is the 1992 Eurpean Cmmunity Prgramme f Plicy and Actin in Relatin t the Envirnment and Sustainable Develpment "Twards Sustainability", the s-called Fifth Envirnmental Actin Prgramme (5EAP).

7 The Central Eurpean cuntries are grappling with mre fundamental issues f institutinal revlutin in land administratin that can restre the cncept f private wnership and land markets first. That requires restratin f the traditinal Land Cadastre and Land Registry befre it can even cntemplate mving n t land market and land management functins. As was written abut the Czech Republic experience: "The restratin f Land Cadastre and Land Registry after mre than frty years can be neither quick nr cheap, as the first steps the missing parcels and ther data t be cmpleted. It represents a large amunt f highly skilled manual wrk distributed by extremely extensive request fr cadastral infrmatin required fr restitutin and privatisatin prcess" [Pesl, 1997]. In Latvia, the experience is similarly ne f restring the legal right t private land wnership and use, fllwed by restratin f rights. The latter f curse is dependent n the establishment f necessary cadastral and land registry ffices [Eglitis and Baldis, 1994]. The Meeting f Officials n Land Administratin (MOLA) which was established in 1996 by the UN s Ecnmic Cmmissin fr Eurpe, stated regarding cuntries in transitin in Central and Eastern Eurpe: "privatisatin f land and security f wnership is increasingly stressed as a prerequisite fr a successful intrductin f market ecnmy" [Onsrud, 1998]. Land refrm in Eastern Eurpe in recent times has aimed t establish land markets by develping a crdinated natinal land plicy, institutinal and legal refrm, simplifying prperty infrmatin systems, marketing land infrmatin held by gvernment departments and assessing the effectiveness f farm cnslidatin schemes [Harris and Land, 1998]. In additin t cuntry examples, there are a number f internatinal instruments that can prvide guidance n trends fr the future. All f these indicate the emphasis n sustainable develpment, the envirnment and/r scial equity and establish the need fr multi-purpse cadastres: 1. The FIG Statement n the Cadastre "A Cadastre...may be established fr fiscal purpses (e.g. valuatin and equitable taxatin), legal purpses (land transfers), t assist in the management f land and land use (e.g. fr planning and ther administrative purpses), and enables sustainable develpment and envirnmental prtectin." 2. Bgr Declaratin: UN Interreginal Meeting f Experts n the Cadastre A Cadastral Visin: Pint 4.1: The visin f the future shared by the meeting was t: develp mdern cadastral infrastructures that facilitate efficient land and prperty markets, prtect the land righst f all, and supprt lng term sustainable develpment and land management. facilitate the planning and develpment f natinal cadastral infrastructures s that they may fully service the escalating needs f greatly increased urban ppulatins. These will result frm the rapid expansin f cities that is already taking place and which is prjected t cntinue int the 21 st century. 3. Cmmissin 7 Cmmissin 7 f the Internatinal Federatin f Surveyrs is tasked t prmte internatinal gdwill, cperatin and understanding in issues f cadastre and land management. Its terms f reference reflect the essence f the FIG Statement and the Bgr Declaratin: Land Management and administratin. Cadastral refrm, multi-purpse cadastres, parcel-based land infrmatin systems and cmputerisatin f cadastral recrds. Cadastral surveying and mapping. Land titling, land tenure, land law and land registratin. Urban and rural land cnslidatin with emphasis n envirnmental and ecnmic issues. Natinal and internatinal bundaries. Land and marine management. There is a specific wrking grup f Cmmissin 7 dedicated t Land Management issues (refer

8 1. Cadastre 2014 Cadastre 2014 is a cmprehensive Land Recrding system develped by the FIG s Cmmissin 7 Wrking Grup 7.1 ( ) that can replace the traditinal institutins and the justificatins fr it included the need t supprt sustainable develpment, deliver certainty f rights and peaceful cexistence as well as the wider ecnmic aims f internatinalizatin [Kaufmann and Steudler, 1998]: "Cadastre 2014 is a methdically arranged public inventry f data cncerning all legal land bjects in certain cuntry r district, based n a survey f their bundaries. Such legal land bjects are systematically identified by means f sme separate designatin. They are defined either by private r by public law. The utlines f the prperty, the identifier tgether with descriptive data, may shw fr each separate land bject the nature, size, value and legal rights r restrictins assciated with the land bject." Studies by Kaufman and Steudler pinted t six principles fr Cadastre 2014 [Kaufmann and Steudler, 1998] Shw the cmplete legal situatin f land, including public rights and restrictins. Separatin between maps and registers will be ablished. Cadastral mapping will be defunct; it will be replaced by mdelling. "Paper & pencil cadastre" will be replaced by mdern technlgy. Cadastre will be highly privatized with public and private sectr wrking clsely tgether. Prcedures fr definitin f private and public land bjects will be identical. Kaufmann and Steudler als stated that the surveyr wuld "play the rle f lcalizing all legal land bjects" and nt nly with private prperty parcels [Kaufmann and Steudler, 1998]. The Facilitating Rle f Infrmatin Technlgy Multi-purpse cadastral systems feed int and require spatial data. The Australian and New Zealand Land Infrmatin Cuncil (ANZLIC) analyzed the benefits f land and gegraphic data acrss Australia and fund that cadastral data cmprised 25% f all spatial data prduced by spatial data suppliers. The reprt als fund a cst-benefit rati f 4:1 fr verall data usage and the benefits: "tk the frm f imprved business and strategic planning, increased prductivity, the develpment f new business pprtunities, imprved scheduling and crdinatin f investment prjects, and imprvements in the utilizatin, pricing, maintenance and dispsal f fixed assets. These benefits were distributed acrss the brad spectrum f ecnmic activities ranging frm the peratin f electricity, gas and water utilities t the develpment f prjects invlving agriculture, mining and envirnmental management" [ANZLIC, 1995]. The push fr multi-purpse cadastres has been made pssible by the availability f technlgies t capture spatial data. The advancement in technlgies such as the Glbal Psitining System (GPS), satellite imaging and ttal statins have all made the capture f digital spatial data a relatively quick and easy prcess. s there is nw a vast amunt f spatial data in digital frm, stred by several rganisatins at varius lcatins acrss the glbe [Phillips et al., 1998]. The Vice President f the USA said in relatin t LANDSAT images: "In spite f the great need fr the infrmatin, the vast majrity f thse images have never fired a single neurn in a single human brain. Instead, they are stred in electrnic sils f data" [Gre, 1998]. The integratin, and subsequent querying f spatial datasets, the lcating and btaining f datasets acrss a netwrk, and the transfer f dissimilar spatial datasets acrss netwrks are all cncepts that have arisen in an attempt t better utilize the spatial datasets that are in existence [Phillips et al., 1998]. Aside frm the availability f data, it has been the intrductin f user-friendly desktp GIS in the last few years that has stimulated interest in using GIS technlgy in gvernment and industry [Lee, 1997]. It is apprpriate here t als mentin the three fundamental cmpnents that the US cnsidered imprtant t establish a multipurpse cadastre ver twenty years ag [NRC, 1983]: 1. A gedetic reference framewrk;

9 2. A base map; 3. A cadastral verlay. The US reprt als stated that these technical cmpnents were fundamental t the develpment f a cadastre that culd: "eventually supprt permanent linkage mechanisms amng real-prperty title, fiscal, and administrative recrds. Mrever, nly where these technical cmpnents are adequately prvided can the multi-purpse cadasatre eventually be expanded t a multipurpse land-data system incrprating natural resurce base and land-related sciecnmic data" [NRC, 1983]. Sme f the majr cadastral refrms being intrduced r being cnsidered fr intrductin int Australia include [Williamsn, 1991]: the develpment f cmplete cmputerised indexes f land parcels at a state level updated by the title registratin system the develpment f autmated and fully cmputerised land title systems the develpment f statewide digital cadastral data bases updated by digital subdivisin data the refrm f the institutinal arrangements fr the management f the cadastre refrms t land transfers and title registratin prcedures ften instigated by Law Refrm Cmmissins refrms t the registratin f surveyrs and the statutes and regulatins cncerned with the perfrmance f cadastral surveys the intrductin f crdinated cadastral surveys the intrductin f crdinated cadastral survey systems where the mathematical crdinates have "legal" significance in that the mathematical crdinate ver-rides mnumentatin n the grund the mve frm a cadastral surveying system, t a cadastral mapping system supprted by cadastral surveys the incrpratin f the cre cmputerised cadastral system as part f a brader LIS r multi-purpse cadastre systems t imprve the delivery f cadastre infrmatin whether this infrmatin is textual r graphical. This includes imaging systems and the use f remte terminals and fax machines. What is certain is that Australian cadastral systems are rapidly mving t multi-purpse systems much mre akin t their Western Eurpean and Nrth American cunterparts, fr similar reasns f increased cmplexity f decisin-making abut land (land use) due t cncerns abut sustainable develpment and scial justice. Central t the success f this next evlutin will be the capacity t facilitate a dynamic relatinship between sciety, infrmatin technlgy systems and the decisin-making f plicy-makers as well as the land markets (as illustrated in Figure 3):

10 Cnclusin Thrughut histry, the relatinship f humankind t land has been dynamic. This dynamism has had a direct impact n the creatin f cadastral systems and the subsequent evlutin f their functin. It is imprtant t nte that the prcess f evlutin f the humankind/land relatinship and the resultant changes in cadastral functins have been cumulative (refer Figure 2). Over time, the humankind/land relatinship has built up layers f cmplexity: land as wealth was extended t include a perceptin f land as cmmdity, then as a scarce resurce and then as a scarce "cmmunity" resurce. In ther wrds, the riginal view f land as wealth mved t include a mre capitalist view f land as an individual s cmmdity. As land became increasingly scarce, sme cuntries decided that State wnership f land based n cmmunist idelgy wuld reslve the prblem. Other cuntries in the West preferred t address the scarcity with better planning (particularly urban planning). Nw there is an increasing awareness that land planning has a wider cmmunity and even glbal imperative. Each f these phases in the humankind/land relatinship elicited a crrespnding layer f cmplexity in the functin f cadastral systems frm a simple recrd f wnership and fiscal tl, t a crnerstne f land markets and then increasingly detailed land-use planning. The wrld is at different pints in the cntinuum. Many develping cuntries are nly just establishing mre frmal cadastral recrds fr fiscal and als land market purpses. The cmmand ecnmies in the Eastern Blc in Eurpe have crumbled in recent times and are attempting t re-establish cadastres fr fiscal and land market purpses while the Western natins are rushing t create multi-purpse cadastres that take a cmmunity apprach t sustainable develpment issues whilst maintaining private wnership. Linked t this trend is the grwing need fr multi-purpse cadastres that have been made pssible by the infrmatin revlutin. The challenge as we enter the glbalizatin era will be t achieve the crdinated planning bjectives that serve respective scieties whilst cuntries are at different stages f the cntinuum f the humankind/land relatinship and which therefre have cadastral systems tuned t different agendas. Acknwledgments The authrs wish t gratefully acknwledge Land Victria and the Surveyr-General s Department f New Suth Wales fr assisting in supprting the preparatin f this paper and the assciated research. Hwever, the views expressed in the paper are thse f the authrs and d nt necessarily reflect the views f Land Victria r the Surveyr-General s Department f New Suth Wales.

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