A 3D Digital Cadastre for New Zealand and the International Opportunity

Transcription

1 International Journal Geo-Information Article A Digital Cadastre for New Zealand and International Opportunity Trent Gulliver 1, *, Anselm Haanen 1 and Mark Goodin 2 1 Office Surveyor-General, Land Information New Zealand, Wellington 6145, New Zealand; ahaanen@linz.govt.nz 2 Operations, Land Information New Zealand, Wellington 6145, New Zealand; mgoodin@linz.govt.nz * Correspondence: tgulliver@linz.govt.nz; Tel.: Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 15 November 2017; Published: 21 November 2017 Abstract: New Zealand has a legal cadastre, and has done since inception its cadastral survey and tenure systems around 150 years ago. However, digital representation cadastre is 2D with situations handled via static plan, section and elevation images and supporting textual information. Work is currently underway to develop a digital cadastre that will enable spatial extents property rights, restrictions and responsibilities to be captured, validated, lodged, integrated with existing data, visualised, and made available for use in or systems. This article presents approach that is being promoted by regulators New Zealand s cadastral survey system in discussions with suppliers land administration systems. Previous research concluded that most appropriate way for New Zealand to develop a digital cadastre is to build upon its existing system. The 2D digital cadastre would continue to be default layer with situations incorporated as and where necessary. To enable this requires a new approach to handling defined in. The representation a parcel as a spatial object is being proposed to allow limited in height to be integrated into digital cadastre and subsequently maintained. While authors discuss how New Zealand s digital cadastre may be transitioned to, it is suggested that generic nature spatial objects could be applied to or jurisdictions. For this reason, international appeal approach is considered as or jurisdictions and providers stware applications may benefit from New Zealand s efforts. Keywords: cadastral survey system; cadastre; parcel; rights restrictions responsibilities; spatial object 1. Introduction This article builds on paper, A Digital Cadastre for New Zealand by 2021: leveraging current system and modern technology [1], which was submitted by authors to 5th International FIG (International Federation Surveyors) Workshop on Cadastres in In that paper it was emphasised that authors involvement in regulating New Zealand s cadastral survey system meant a regulatory perspective was being shared with international research community. While this perspective is continued in this article, re is a point difference to authors earlier contribution. A key finding research at that time was need to develop a system that best accounts for New Zealand s situation, for which re are a number unique characteristics. Whilst this premise still stands today, authors have since formed view that development New Zealand s cadastral survey system presents opportunities at international level. These opportunities relate to way in which rights, restrictions and responsibilities could be produced and incorporated into digital cadastre as survey and title system for New Zealand is furr developed. It is not intention authors to fer a detailed design solution. Rar this article shares with international community work that New Zealand is doing to develop its current 2D ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, 375; doi: /ijgi

2 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, digital cadastre to an operational digital cadastre. To date, this work is enabling authors and or Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) staff to have meaningful conversations with suppliers land administration systems. The detailed design final solution will be responsibility vendor contracted to build new system with input from LINZ and surveying pression New Zealand. The authors have been actively promoting development a digital cadastre for New Zealand since During this time: international status cadastres has been examined; dialogue with likeminded international jurisdictions has taken place; attendance and participation at national and international conferences with a cadastre flavour has occurred; input practising licensed cadastral surveyors has been obtained. Outputs from se undertakings include a sis [2], conference papers [1,3] and presentations, articles in a New Zealand survey publication [4,5] and several internal discussion documents. The following discussion commences with an overview New Zealand s cadastral survey system. This is an important starting point as system provides both environment and platform on which to develop a digital cadastre. With this context next section presents approach being pursued to achieve a solution. This section includes documentation requirements fundamental to a digital cadastre in New Zealand. This is followed with discussion on international opportunities that authors believe exist. The article is closed with concluding remarks. 2. The Present Situation in New Zealand In this section an overview New Zealand s cadastral survey system is presented with consideration institutional framework and technical and operational processes currently employed for handling cadastral survey data. This sets scene in which goals for developing system are discussed Property Rights and Cadastral Survey System New Zealand (Figure 1) benefits from a national property rights system that promotes efficiency and confidence in transaction property rights. The cadastral survey system is a core component property rights system with a prime purpose to define location and spatial extents land and or real property (e.g., a unit under Unit Titles Act 2010). This information is used by managers tenure systems to enable registration rights, restrictions and responsibilities and provides interested parties with confidence in location boundaries [5]. All cadastral surveys must be undertaken by licensed cadastral surveyors. There are currently 668 licensed cadastral surveyors [6], most whom are employed in private sector. Those surveyors must ensure that ir surveys and resulting cadastral survey datasets comply with rules (regulations) set by Surveyor-General (currently Rules for Cadastral Survey 2010 [7]) before y are lodged with LINZ. LINZ, government agency responsible for cadastral, geodetic and title systems, ensures each cadastral survey dataset complies with Rules before approving it and n integrating it into cadastre.

3 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure1. 1. Reference [8] [8] New Zealand an island nation with a national property rights system A Legal Cadastre Associatedwith with cadastral survey survey system system is is cadastre. cadastre. The The Cadastral Cadastral Survey Survey Act 2002 Act defines 2002 defines cadastre cadastre to mean to mean all all cadastral cadastral survey survey data data held held by by or or for for Crown Crownand and Crown agencies [9] [9](s. (s. 4). 4). In In practise, this this describes repository cadastral survey datasets lodgedwith LINZ and integrated into its database (currently Landonline). These These integrated data data are are referred referred to to in in Surveyor-General s Surveyor-General s strategic strategic document, document, Cadastre Cadastre 2034 [10], 2034 as[10], being as fundamental being fundamental to cadastral to cadastral survey system. survey system. New New Zealand has a well-established legal legal cadastre. cadastre. The The ability ability to define to define extents extents rights, rights, restrictions restrictions and responsibilities and responsibilities in has in existed has since existed since inception inception New Zealand s New Zealand s cadastral cadastral survey and survey tenure and systems tenure systems at time at when time when country country was being was colonised being colonised by by British British in in 1800s [2]. 1800s The [2]. freehold The freehold title system title system under under Torrens Torrens based Land based Transfer Land Transfer Act 1952 Act [11] 1952 supports [11] supports rights, restrictions rights, restrictions and responsibilities and responsibilities in property, regardless in property, wher regardless y arewher restrictedy in height are restricted or not. The in Land height Transfer or not. The ActLand 1952 is Transfer set to be Act repealed 1952 is and set to replaced be repealed by and Land replaced Transfer by ActLand 2017, Transfer althoughact 2017, fundamental although principles fundamental system principles will remain system [12] (s. will 3). remain [12] (s. 3) The Cadastre and Role Monuments The spatial definition New New Zealand cadastral survey survey and and property property rights rights systems, systems, and hence and hence cadastre, cadastre, is founded is founded on physical on physical monuments in in ground. The The legal position boundaries a parcel rights, restrictions and responsibilitiesis is defined by original and undisturbed boundary monuments. These boundary monuments, which are ten woodenor or plastic pegs, are connected by survey observations (via bearing and distance vectors) to to nearby reference marks (known as witness and permanent reference marks). The reference marks, which are are ten ten iron iron spikes spikes or iron or iron tubes tubes set into set into ground, ground, are inare turnin connected turn connected to orto survey or marks, survey including marks, including geodetic control. geodetic These control. connections These connections help surveyors help to surveyors confirm to reliability confirm oldreliability boundary marks old boundary and also tomarks relocate and boundary also to positions relocate boundary if original positions markif is determined original mark to be disturbed determined or no to longer be disturbed re. or no longer re The Cadastre and Role 2D Coordinates Connection cadastral network to geodetic network allows 2D coordinates to be assigned to all survey and boundary marks that are integrated into Landonline. It is through se

4 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, The Cadastre and Role 2D Coordinates Connection cadastral network to geodetic network allows 2D coordinates to be assigned to all survey and boundary marks that are integrated into Landonline. It is through se coordinates that cadastral network can be digitally managed in 2D. Coordinates have also enabled highly-automated capture, validation, recording and supply cadastral survey data, thus promoting high levels efficiency and accuracy in-coming data [5]. While coordinates enable surveyors to readily relocate survey and boundary marks, y do not provide a legal definition boundary location (i.e., New Zealand does not have a legal coordinated cadastre). The legal definition boundaries continues to be provided by original and undisturbed boundary marks established by surveyor and supported through observations connecting those marks, as documented in certified cadastral survey dataset The Cadastre and 2D Parcel Fabric A valuable output cadastral survey system is parcel fabric, being a continuous surface connected that covers whole New Zealand. The parcel fabric is a substantive layer information that is used extensively in a myriad spatial applications, well beyond cadastral surveying. Although parcel fabric is derived from information provided through cadastral survey datasets, it should not be confused as being legal cadastre. The parcel fabric is a digital, non-legal representation boundaries with a positional accuracy that may not coincide with original and undisturbed boundary marks in ground and may not represent ir relative positions as documented in legal cadastre [5] The Cadastre and Effects Ground Movement New Zealand s geographical location astride collision zone between Australian and Pacific tectonic plates adds to complexity cadastral surveying in this country. Survey observations between local marks accommodate general ground movements across country because distortions over small areas are normally insignificant (i.e., relativity between boundary and witness marks is preserved). In case significant movements, such as those resulting from a powerful earthquake (especially around fault lines), differences might be too great to ignore. In se situations resurvey work is required, based on old marks in conjunction with or information available to surveyor. The effect ground movement also impacts on accuracy coordinates used for digital management cadastral network. As New Zealand moves, discrepancies occur between in--ground position marks and ir coordinated representation [5]. The magnitude and unpredictable nature ground movement in New Zealand is prime reason for a monument-based cadastre D Cadastral Survey Datasets In situations where re is neir need nor desire to restrict lower and/or upper limits, surveyors present detailed survey information in 2D. In past (prior to Landonline) surveyors documented this information on paper-based survey plans (e.g., Figure 2). Today, this information is spatially captured in Landonline system via a cadastral survey dataset. Cadastral survey datasets include all survey data (e.g., marks, measurements, boundaries, ) in structured digital form (Figure 3) as well as a static diagram image ( plan Figure 4) dataset. Within Landonline, dataset components are directly linked to same components from previous surveys. For example, it is possible to see measurements between two marks from many different surveys.

5 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure 2. Reference [13] An early example rights defined in. The 1911 survey plan relates to a Figure 2. Reference [13] An early example rights defined in. The 1911 survey plan relates to a railway tunnel in South Island New Zealand. The tunnel traverses beneath multiple privately Figure 2. Reference [13] An early examplezealand. rights defined in.traverses The 1911beneath survey plan relatesprivately to a railway South Island The tunnel multiple heldtunnel in land. The upper limit New railway corridor is restricted in height by way reference railway tunnel inthe South Island New Zealand.corridor The tunnel traverses beneath multiple privately held land. upper limit railway is restricted in height by way reference to an fset from a physical structure, being ceiling tunnel. The lower limit tunnel is not held a land. The upper limit being railway corridor is restricted in height bylimit way reference to andefined; fset from physical structure, parcel ceiling tunnel. The lower Earth. tunnel is refore, it is assumed that tunnel extends downward to centre to an fset from a physical structure, being ceiling tunnel. The lower limit tunnel is not not defined; refore, it is assumed that tunnel parcel extends downward to centre Earth. defined; refore, it is assumed that tunnel parcel extends downward to centre Earth. Figure 3. Landonline spatial view captured cadastral survey dataset. Figure 3. Landonline spatial view captured cadastral survey dataset. Figure 3. Landonline spatial view captured cadastral survey dataset.

6 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure 4. Static diagram image (plan) cadastral survey dataset. Figure 4. Static diagram image (plan) cadastral survey dataset. 2D cadastral survey datasets are integrated into Landonline database. Integration includes 2D recording cadastral all survey data in datasets cadastral are integrated survey dataset intoas lodged Landonline by surveyor, database. as well Integration as generating includes recording 2D coordinates all data for inall survey cadastral and boundary survey dataset points in asterms lodged by geodetic surveyor, control as network well as generating using 2D coordinates least squares for adjustments. all survey andthe boundary coordinates points are inassigned terms an accuracy geodetic control order based network on using ir least compliance with Rules, although, as noted in Section 2.4 y do not define legal boundaries. squares adjustments. The coordinates are assigned an accuracy order based on ir compliance with Integration also includes meeting topology requirements to ensure that re are no gaps or overlaps Rules, although, as noted in Section 2.4 y do not define legal boundaries. Integration also recorded in network primary. That primary parcel network covers all New includes Zealand meeting and consists topology 2,538,167 requirements to as ensure at 24 August that re 2017 are [14]. no gaps or overlaps recorded in network Landonline primary also. has a That 2D primary network parcel secondary network covers(e.g., all for New rights--way Zealand and or consists or 2,538,167 easements) which as at are 24 August generally 2017 related [14]. to corresponding underlying primary. In this Landonline secondary parcel alsonetwork has a 2D gaps network and overlaps secondary are permitted, although (e.g., secondary for rights--way may or not or easements) cross a primary which are parcel generally boundary. related to corresponding underlying primary. In this secondary parcel network gaps and overlaps are permitted, although secondary may not cross 2.8. Cadastral Survey Datasets a primary parcel boundary. In situations where a parcel is defined in, surveyor is required to draft a plan, with 2.8. section Cadastral and elevation Survey Datasets graphics supported by textual descriptions. This information is provided as a TIFF file and uploaded to Landonline as a static image and not intelligent spatial data as for a 2D In situations where a parcel is defined in, surveyor is required to draft a plan, with section cadastral survey dataset (and hence are not visualised in digital cadastre). These plans and elevation graphics supported by textual descriptions. This information is provided as a TIFF file can be difficult to interpret by surveyors, let alone layperson, especially where boundaries and uploaded are not uniform. to Landonline as a static image and not intelligent spatial data as for a 2D cadastral survey dataset There are (and a variety hence scenarios where are not a surveyor visualised may indefine digital vertical cadastre). extents These a parcel plans can be difficult rights, restrictions to interpret and byresponsibilities, surveyors, letboth alone below layperson, ground level especially (e.g., a tunnel where as in Figure boundaries 2) and are not uniform. above ground (e.g., an air space covenant). In New Zealand most common situation in which There are acreated varietyare for scenarios unit titles where under a surveyor Unit Titles mayact define 2010 (previously vertical extents 1972 Act) a [15]. parcel rights, Unit restrictions titles are and most responsibilities, widely used form both below multi-unit ground property level ownership (e.g., a tunnel in New as Zealand. in Figure As at 2) and 21 August 2017 re are 14,263 residential and commercial unit title developments that comprise a above ground (e.g., an air space covenant). In New Zealand most common situation in which total 168,039 individual unit titles [14]. are created are for unit titles under Unit Titles Act 2010 (previously 1972 Act) [15]. Figures 5 and 6 are examples plan and elevation views a unit title development over Unit titles are most widely used form multi-unit property ownership in New Zealand. As at primary parcel (surveyed in 2D) that was discussed under Section 2.7 above. 21 August 2017 re are 14,263 residential and commercial unit title developments that comprise a total 168,039 individual unit titles [14].

7 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figures 5 and 6 are examples plan and elevation views a unit title development over primary parcel (surveyed in 2D) that was discussed under Section 2.7 above. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure 5. Plan view unit title development. Figure 5. Plan view unit title development. Figure 5. Plan view unit title development. Figure 6. Elevation views unit title development. Figure 6. Elevation views unit title development. Figure 6. Elevation views unit title development.

8 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Future Goals for New Zealand Cadastre The introduction Landonline in early 2000s represented a significant step forward into age digital information. It enabled an end-to-end cycle digital cadastral survey data (discussed furr in Section 3.3 below), at least in a 2D sense. However, cycle is incomplete in situations where are defined in because analogue procedures are incorporated (as emphasised in Section 2.8 above). The aim is for New Zealand s current legal cadastre to be represented and managed digitally. A digital cadastre would permit data associated with real world extents property rights, restrictions and responsibilities to be digitally captured, automatically checked against requirements, combined with existing data (and subsequently maintained), and exported for re-use in or systems. The primary goal is for entire cadastral survey process (from field to finish ) to move away from any remaining analogue processes and maximise benefits associated with digital data. In this respect New Zealand is already well advanced in relation to 2D surveys (i.e., those that do not have height information), but not for. Cadastral surveyors in New Zealand already utilise digital technologies when undertaking ir surveys, calculations, and verification. They are also obtaining digital models generated by architects and engineers for new buildings (e.g., through Building Information Modelling BIM ) and utilise m to define internal boundaries (with ground truthing). However, current processes do not allow surveyors to submit that data to cadastre, but instead require m to produce a plan image that cannot be interpreted by a computer and which require human interpretation. Full digital representation survey data will enable quality to be maximised through digital verification techniques (e.g., clash detection for boundaries). Visualisation tools fer opportunity to significantly improve quality and interpretation cadastral survey datasets and digital models y contain. The functionality zooming into a model and changing point view is now readily available (e.g., PDF viewers). Availability digital cadastral data will enable it to be presented in various forms and utilised with or geospatial data for a multitude purposes, both current and yet to be realised [3]. This is routinely undertaken for 2D cadastral data, but can also be readily achieved for datasets. 3. Approach to Achieving Digital In this section an approach to achieving a digital cadastre is identified with rationale provided as to why it was selected. This leads into discussion around application approach at (reasonably high) technical level Identifying an Approach Solutions need to consider how extents property rights, restrictions and responsibilities are legally defined in a digital environment and also how related digital data is incorporated into and managed within system. As noted earlier New Zealand s legislative framework already supports definition property rights, restrictions and responsibilities in and does not inhibit development cadastral survey system to cater for digital data. It is at technical level where modification is required. Gulliver (2015) reviewed literature associated with development cadastres, particularly stemming from research Stoter and van Oosterom [16], where three fundamental interpretations cadastre are presented: fully cadastre, hybrid solution and tags. The option being pursued for New Zealand is based on a variation on concept hybrid cadastre. Under this approach, property rights, restrictions and responsibilities can be integrated into digital cadastre and subsequently maintained. In situations where upper and lower height limits property rights, restrictions and responsibilities are defined, a full spatial depiction would be used. Orwise 2D would be maintained as a default.

9 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, The development a a digital digital cadastre cadastre using using a variation a variation Stoter s Stoter s hybrid hybrid approach approach is deemed is to deemed be most to be appropriate most appropriate solution to enhance solution New to enhance Zealand s New cadastral Zealand s survey cadastral system. survey This approach system. builds This approach on existing builds robust on 2Dexisting digitalrobust cadastre 2D bydigital allowing cadastre data by toallowing be digitally captured, data to be validated, digitally maintained captured, validated, and made maintained available and for reuse made as available and where for reuse necessary. as and Importantly where necessary. approach Importantly also allows approach New Zealand s also allows monument-based New Zealand s legal monument-based cadastre (discussed legal in cadastre Sections (discussed 2.3 and 2.6in above) Section to2.3 be preserved and Section as2.6 above) foundation to be preserved digital as cadastre. foundation digital cadastre Spatial Objects to Represent Parcels The concept a spatial spatialobject (Figure (Figure7) 7) is isbeing beingpursued pursuedto to allow allow defined defined in in to be to be submitted submitted and and integrated integrated into into digital digitalcadastre cadastreand and subsequently maintained. Spatial object modelling is a seasoned tool used in GIS GIS (Geographic Information System) applications [17] and its relevance to to advancing advancing cadastral cadastral systems systems was was foreseen foreseen in Cadastre in Cadastre 2014: A2014: vision A for vision a future for a cadastre future system cadastre [18]. system In [18]. context In this context article, a spatial this article, object describes a spatial (within object specified describes accuracy (within standards) specified accuracy size, shape standards) extent size, shape property and rights, extent restrictions property and rights, responsibilities restrictions and as responsibilities a watertight as volume. a watertight In a GIS context, volume. In a spatial GIS context, object is a coordinated spatial object is volume defined a coordinated in volume defined terms x, y andin z. Modern terms spatial x, y and technologies, z. Modern including spatial technologies, GIS and BIM, including have functionality GIS and BIM, for creating, have functionality manipulating, for viewing, creating, and manipulating, managing viewing, such spatial and objects. managing such spatial objects. Figure 7. perspective view unit title development, being set spatial objects which represent Figure 7. A perspective view a unit title development, being a set spatial objects which represent extents rights, restrictions and responsibilities associated with multilevel extents rights, restrictions and responsibilities associated with a multilevel apartment apartment complex complex (a (a single single parcel parcel is is highlighted highlighted in in magenta). magenta). The The digital digital model model is based is based on on paper-based paper-based cadastral cadastral survey survey dataset dataset discussed discussed in Section in Section above. above Establishing Fundamental Requirements 3.3. Establishing Fundamental Requirements The requirements considered to be fundamental for handling cadastral survey datasets in The requirements considered to be fundamental for handling cadastral survey datasets in a digital cadastre are considered in terms Cycle Digital Cadastral Survey Data, as digital cadastre are considered in terms Cycle Digital Cadastral Survey Data, as presented presented in Figure 8. in Figure 8. In Cycle Digital Cadastral Survey Data a cadastral survey typically commences with a In Cycle Digital Cadastral Survey Data a cadastral survey typically commences with surveyor searching cadastral survey database for records that relate to area interest. a surveyor searching cadastral survey database for records that relate to area interest. Relevant information is obtained and spatial data is extracted and uploaded into surveyor s Relevant information is obtained and spatial data is extracted and uploaded into surveyor s survey stware where it is combined with new data from ir field survey. dataset is prepared in survey stware where it is combined with new data from ir field survey. A dataset is prepared in surveyor s stware and checked for initial compliance against Rules and system requirements surveyor s stware and checked for initial compliance against Rules and system requirements via validation service. The surveyor n sends ir dataset to LINZ staging environment. via validation service. The surveyor n sends ir dataset to LINZ staging environment. Here surveyor finalises cadastral survey dataset and checks it for accuracy and completeness, again through validation service. The surveyor n certifies cadastral survey dataset and submits it to LINZ for approval and integration into cadastral survey database.

10 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Here surveyor finalises cadastral survey dataset and checks it for accuracy and completeness, again through validation service. The surveyor n certifies cadastral survey dataset and submits it to LINZ for approval and integration into cadastral survey database. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure Figure Cycle Cycle Digital Digital Cadastral Cadastral Survey Survey Data. Data. Note: LINZ denotes Land InformationNew NewZealand. From From Cycle Cycle Digital Cadastral Survey Data, fundamental requirements a a digital cadastre cadastre are are identified (refer (refer to to Table 1) 1) and n discussed in furr detailin in following subsections. Table Table List List fundamental requirements digital cadastre. Requirement Requirement Search, visualise and retrieve existing stored in digital cadastre Search, visualise Create and new retrieve existing via cadastral stored survey in datasets digital cadastre Create Lodge new new cadastral via cadastral survey survey datasets datasets Lodge new cadastral survey datasets Validate cadastral survey datasets against regulatory and system requirements Validate cadastral survey datasets against regulatory and system requirements Integrate cadastral survey datasets into into digital digital cadastre cadastre Maintain spatial alignment in in digital cadastre Search, Search, Visualise Visualise & & Retrieve Retrieve A search function would need to have ability to visualise, interrogate and extract digital A search function would need to have ability to visualise, interrogate and extract digital survey and boundary information. Specifically, users system should be able to: survey and boundary information. Specifically, users system should be able to: a. see as 2D birds-eye (plan) view against 2D cadastral parcel network (Figure 9); a. b. see see as in 2D birds-eye against a (plan) projection view against 2D parcel 2D cadastral fabric in parcel an area network (Figure 10), (Figure which 9); b. see also enable different in against cadastral a survey projection datasets to be 2D related parcel to each fabric or in an spatially; area (Figure 10), c. which interrogate also enable different defined cadastral in a cadastral survey survey datasets dataset to by be visualising related to each and interacting or spatially; with c. interrogate m ; defined in a cadastral survey dataset by visualising and interacting with d. m retrieve in ; all data in cadastral survey dataset as provided by surveyor. d. retrieve all data in cadastral survey dataset as provided by surveyor.

11 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure 9. Plan view against 2D parcel fabric. Figure 9. Plan view against 2D parcel fabric. Figure 9. Plan view against 2D parcel fabric. Figure 10. Perspective view against 2D parcel fabric. Figure 10. Perspective view against 2D parcel fabric. Figure 10. Perspective view against 2D parcel fabric. Existing can be changed (e.g., subdivided, boundaries shifted) just as ordinary 2D Existing can be altered. In can this be case, changed surveyors (e.g., would subdivided, obtain boundaries existing shifted) survey and just parcel as ordinary data from 2D Existing system can be and altered. n upload In can this beit case, changed into surveyors ir (e.g., third-party would subdivided, obtain stware. existing boundaries The surveyor shifted) would and just parcel as n ordinary data combine from 2D new system survey can beand work altered. n with In upload this existing case, it into surveyors data ir as third-party y would create obtain stware. a new existing cadastral The surveyor survey dataset. would and parcel n combine data from new system Exports survey andwork n with upload existing it for into use ir in data or third-party as y stware create stware. would a new be cadastral The dependent surveyor on would dataset. user s nrequirement combine new survey Exports work data. with Two different existing options for data use for as in or y extracting create stware a a new would parcel cadastral be would dependent survey be available: dataset. on user s requirement Exports data. Two different for options use infor or extracting stware a would parcel bewould dependent be available: on user s requirement 1. as it was lodged, certified and approved in cadastral survey dataset, as that is 1. data. authoritative as Two was different lodged, options record certified for extracting legal and position approved a parcel in boundary; would cadastral be available: and; survey dataset, as that is 2. as authoritative transformed record to fit digital legal position cadastre, recognising boundary; that and; positions change over time due to 1. as it was lodged, certified and approved in cadastral survey dataset, as that is authoritative 2. improved as transformed data and to fit geodetic digital shifts. cadastre, recognising that positions change over time due to record legal position boundary; and; improved data and geodetic shifts.

12 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, as transformed to fit digital cadastre, recognising that positions change over time due to improved data and geodetic shifts. In former case future surveyor could n transform that data to fit marks found on new survey ISPRS Int. to J. Geo-Inf. accurately 2017, 6, 375 determine location on ground at that time as spatial objects would be able to be integrated into GIS or or spatial information In former case future surveyor could n transform that data to fit marks found on systems and overlaid with or datasets, wher in 2D or. Being coordinated in terms new survey to accurately determine location on ground at that time. ficial geodetic datum would enable boundaries primary and secondary as spatial objects would be able to be integrated into GIS or or spatial information (position systems and spatial overlaid object) with or to bedatasets, readily determined wher in 2D onor. ground, Being coordinated especially in through terms use positioning ficial geodetic technologies. datum would enable boundaries primary and secondary (position It will be spatial important object) for to users be readily to have determined ability on to become ground, informed especially through location and use spatial extents positioning all property technologies. rights, restrictions and responsibilities through visual interrogation and analysis It digital will be cadastre. important for users to need have to be ability suitably to become displayed informed spatial location views and in terms spatial underlying extents primary all property parcel fabric. rights, In restrictions additionand to responsibilities perspective views, through 2Dvisual plan interrogation views could and permit a quick analysis assessment digital footprint cadastre. all property need rights, to be suitably restrictions displayed and in responsibilities spatial views in in terms relation underlying primary parcel fabric. In addition to perspective views, 2D plan views could to underlying primary (refer to Figures 9 and 10). The user would be alerted to situations permit a quick assessment footprint all property rights, restrictions and responsibilities in where a footprint represents a right defined in. Views in could n be explored if furr relation to underlying primary (refer to Figures 9 and 10). The user would be alerted to understanding situations where was required a footprint byrepresents user. a right defined in. Views in could n be explored if furr understanding was required by user Creation Parcels A Creation parcel would Parcels be based on data collected and verified as correct by surveyor responsible for certifying A andparcel lodging would cadastral be based survey on data dataset. collected These and data verified could as be correct obtained by through surveyor a variety sources, responsible including for certifying digital architectural and lodging and cadastral engineering survey designs, dataset. These BIM data, could and via be direct obtained survey measurements through a variety made in sources, field. including It is expected digital that architectural latterand would engineering also be designs, used to ground-truth BIM data, and each via preceding direct survey scenarios. measurements made in field. It is expected that latter would also be used to ground-truth each preceding scenarios. As discussed in Section 3.2 above, every parcel represented as a spatial object is by definition As discussed in Section 3.2 above, every parcel represented as a spatial object is by definition coordinated in terms x, y, and z coordinates. In order to have a defined relationship between a coordinated in terms x, y, and z coordinates. In order to have a defined relationship between a parcel parcel and its and underlying its underlying primary primary parcel, parcel, re re would would be a need be a to need link to link parcel parcel to underlying to parcel underlying and nearby parcel permanent and nearby reference permanent marks reference (refermarks to Figure (refer 11). to Figure 11). Figure 11. coordinated in terms underlying parcel and permanent reference mark. Figure 11. coordinated in terms underlying parcel and permanent reference mark. From a survey definition perspective, parcel (a parcel with defined height limits) must be defined in relation to its underlying primary parcel. This ensures that boundaries

13 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, From a survey definition perspective, parcel (a parcel with defined height limits) must be defined in relation to its underlying primary parcel. This ensures that boundaries parcel could be identified by firstly relocating boundary points on underlying primary parcel which will have been fully defined by monuments. Similarly, in cadastral survey dataset, relationship between parcel and its underlying primary parcel needs to be explicitly defined. This can be achieved by including in dataset, horizontal coordinates that correspond to boundary points previously defined on its underlying primary parcel. Wherever boundaries parcel and underlying parcel are coincident, horizontal coordinates both ends underlying boundary would also need to be included in dataset. The accuracy between those coordinated points on underlying parcel and vertices spatial object would have to meet relevant standard in Rules. These requirements would also ensure that spatial object for parcel could be maintained in alignment with primary parcel network. The vertical position parcel needs to be capable being re-established in future, and also be reflected spatially in digital cadastre. Therefore, z vertices inherent in parcel would need to be related to z coordinates on existing boundary corners underlying primary parcel and/or permanent reference marks, all in terms ficial vertical datum. Parcel Represented by Permanent Structure Boundaries The Rules for Cadastral Survey 2010 allow certain types secondary to be defined by permanent structure boundaries. These boundaries are described in relation to a physical feature (e.g., outer face a wall, or an fset to feature). The licensed cadastral surveyor who certifies cadastral survey dataset is responsible for defining position and accuracy permanent structure boundary in relation to permanent structure. Two options have been identified for recording this relationship: 1. Three-dimensional parcel representation permanent structure boundary only (as presented in Figure 7). The parcel and its boundaries would be defined by a spatial object, along with a description physical structure to which it is related and relationship (e.g., boundary through centre wall or boundary follows centre concrete floor ). The description relationship between permanent structure boundaries and permanent structure is great importance as it defines legal position boundary. 2. Spatial object representation permanent structure boundary and permanent structure (e.g., physical structure apartment complex associated with depicted in Figure 7). The parcel and its boundaries would be defined by a spatial object, as would permanent structure itself (i.e., two layers data would be provided). A description relationship between two would not necessarily be required as this would be able to be determined from spatial objects using a measurement tool in spatial stware. This approach, in which legal spaces are associated with physical elements to which y relate, was raised by Aien et al. [19] and is being furr promoted in recent research, by Atazadeh, Rajabifard and Kalantari [20]. Common property, being land or a building that is for use all property owners, would not necessarily be defined by a parcel. It could be that part space remaining after have been excluded, and would be viewable using suitable stware that extruded 2D underlying parcel boundaries as appropriate Lodgement The system should be capable receiving cadastral survey datasets (that may include both 2D and information) as digitally certified by surveyor (i.e., without change). Cadastral survey datasets would be prepared by surveyors in third-party stware. The contents a cadastral

14 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, survey dataset would include information that describes size, shape and spatial position each its in relation to: 2D underlying primary parcel, or parcel where it is being subdivided or redefined; any permanent structure to which it is referenced (e.g., wall, floor and ceiling an apartment complex). A cadastral survey dataset may also include ordinary ( 2D ) and related survey information. For example, in a unit title development surveyor may choose (or be required) to re-survey 2D primary parcel to which new an apartment block are referenced. As is situation for ordinary, each parcel will need to be identified through a unique appellation (label). This is required for management cadastre and to enable tenure system managers to register (create) associated right, restriction or responsibility Validation Data being submitted into cadastre needs to be validated. The primary purpose validation is to ensure that data complies with Rules and that it is able to be integrated into digital cadastre. Automated business rules should check that: a. new parcel boundaries do not overlap underlying parcel boundaries to which y relate; b. new in a cadastral survey dataset do not illegitimately overlap (some types overlaps are permitted) or (new and existing); c. cadastral survey datasets are in terms ficial national vertical and horizontal datums; d. volume any existing parcel that is being subdivided (e.g., a unit redevelopment an apartment complex) is completely taken into account. Validation through automated business rules is a key part system, and this is emphasised in research by Thompson and van Oosterom [21] and Karki et al. [22]. It is likely that surveyors will be required to obtain and carry through links to existing data (e.g., underlying, points) held in system to enable automated validation. For maximum effect, automated validation should be available to surveyors as a cadastral survey dataset is being prepared in third-party stware prior to certification and lodgement. LINZ staff are also required to perform validation prior to approval certified cadastral survey dataset. Three-dimensional clash detection routines found in current surveying, engineering, GIS and BIM stware indicate that validation ought to be readily achieved. Despite any validation procedures, responsibility for correctness certified data will continue to be obligation surveyor responsible for cadastral survey dataset Integration The vision is for a digital cadastre where property rights, restrictions and responsibilities are represented digitally in 2D or as appropriate in a single integrated and seamless system. To achieve this, data contained in cadastral survey datasets, as provided by surveyor, will need to be integrated into digital cadastre (i.e., combined with existing data). The integration process will store components cadastral survey dataset in database in a similar manner to or cadastral survey datasets and will be completed by LINZ. To enable automated integration processes, re is likely to be a need for surveyors to obtain and carry through links to existing data held in system (as for validation, discussed above). Once a cadastral survey dataset is approved, it would be adjusted into digital parcel network and representation would be repositioned relative to ir underlying parcel and permanent reference marks in terms ficial coordinate datum and projection. Currently primary and secondary defined by nodes and lines are fully integrated into boundary network. This means y are managed topologically and coordinates are generated through

15 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, least-squares adjustment vector (bearing and distance) data. However, under this proposal would be managed through a different process. Topology would not be directly managed, and alignment would be maintained by applying a transformation to, using connection points to cadastral network as control (i.e., boundary points on underlying parcel and permanent reference marks, as recorded in cadastral survey dataset) Maintaining Spatial Alignment LINZ needs to be able to maintain and update spatial location in network over time. Any movement geodetic marks (such as that caused by tectonic movements) that affect cadastral marks may have an effect on underlying which in turn has an effect on any associated parcel. The processes for adjusting 2D parcel network will need to be extended to also adjust any parcel to keep m in correct relationship. The requirement for connections that meet accuracy standards in Rules is intended to ensure that transformation would result in negligible distortion parcel during future alignment processes. Similarly, height values will need to be adjustable as height values geodetic control marks change over time. 4. New Zealand s Progress to a Digital Cadastre and International Opportunity In this section New Zealand s progress to a digital cadastre is presented in light work currently being undertaken. This work couples with approach to realise a digital cadastre to create an opportunity at international level Advanced Survey and Title Services to Replace Landonline Landonline is built on technology that was considered to be leading edge in late 1990s. There have since been substantial advancements in technology, knowledge and expertise in developing land administration systems. There are also changing expectations from an increasingly diverse range customers and consumers that include land pressionals, such as surveyors and conveyancers, along with experts and non-experts in spatial science, systems and information. These expectations relate to functionality and performance system and applications for which its data can be used. In particular re is increasing demand from spatial community, and indeed general public, for property information in a digital and readily consumable format. Advanced Survey and Title Services (ASaTS) is a current project work that aims to deliver next generation technology and significantly improve quality and range survey and title services that LINZ provides to its customers. ASaTS will increase availability and quality property information to support high quality decision-making, while moving survey and title service to a responsive and sustainable technology platform. Importantly, ASaTS is supported by New Zealand government, and in context this article, it provides a pathway to realising a digital cadastre. LINZ is considering an as a Service (aas) approach to developing ASaTS. Rar than owning system, as is currently case for Landonline, LINZ would select a provider that could deliver a suitable system that LINZ would pay to access. It is important to note that while new system would be owned by anor party, LINZ would retain control data and its use. LINZ and its staff would also continue to process and assure quality survey and title transactions. At this point in time, LINZ is working with a preferred supplier through a discovery and definition phase. LINZ is hopeful completing contractual arrangements in 2018 with development and transition to new system scheduled to be completed by 2021 (see Figure 12) Applicability New Zealand s Approach to or Jurisdictions New Zealand s pursuit advanced survey and title services provides an opportunity for or jurisdictions to benefit from work resulting from ASaTS Project. In particular, work being

16 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, undertaken could be interest to or jurisdictions looking to develop digital capabilities ir systems. This is especially due to coordinate-based approach to create and manage. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, Figure 12. Advanced Survey and Title Services (ASaTS) timeline. Figure 12. Advanced Survey and Title Services (ASaTS) timeline. Or jurisdictions would not necessarily need to share a similar base system to that New Zealand. Or The jurisdictions GIS-centric would approach not necessarily spatial need objects to share should a similar lend itself base to system any existing to that cadastre, New wher Zealand. it The be advanced GIS-centric or approach developing, and spatial irrespective objects should wher lend itself legal to definition any existing underlying cadastre, wher is it be based advanced on monuments or developing, (supported and irrespective by observations e.g., wher legal New definition Zealand) underlying or legal coordinates is based (e.g., on Singapore monuments [23]). (supported While by observations e.g., authors have described New Zealand) how or legal coordinates defined by (e.g., spatial Singapore objects will [23]). be While integrated authors into a base have system described that how is monument-based, defined by establishment spatial objects will a relationship be integrated between into a base system coordinated that is monument-based, objects and underlying establishment or abutting a relationship would between seem universal. coordinated objects and underlying or abutting would seem universal Development Stware Applications 4.3. Development Stware Applications A key feature being explored is potential for ASaTS system to work in concert with key feature being explored is potential for ASaTS system to work in concert with third-party stware applications via a set secure standards-based application programming third-party stware applications via set secure standards-based application programming interfaces (APIs). The role played by se third parties is likely to include functionality to create interfaces (APIs). The role played by se third parties is likely to include functionality to create cadastral survey datasets, including any diagrams, for both 2D and surveys. Where possible, cadastral survey datasets, including any diagrams, for both 2D and surveys. Where possible, data data formats and schemas will leverage existing LINZ/international standards. Where gaps exist, formats and schemas will leverage existing LINZ/international standards. Where gaps exist, LINZ LINZ will endeavour to work with pressional and industry bodies and communities to ensure will endeavour to work with pressional and industry bodies and communities to ensure that data that data standards are consistent, fit-for-purpose, and easily consumable by providers third-party standards are consistent, fit-for-purpose, and easily consumable by providers third-party stware solutions. stware solutions. 5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions New Zealand is in process transitioning to a national digital cadastre. In New Zealand s favour New is a Zealand mature is property in process rights system transitioning that already to a national accounts for digital situations cadastre. In and New a robust Zealand s 2D favour is a mature property rights system that already accounts for situations and a robust 2D digital cadastre. These combine to provide a sound platform on which to develop capabilities. digital cadastre. These combine to provide a sound platform on which to develop capabilities. Despite this, approach presented in this article to digitally manage rights, Despite this, approach presented in this article to digitally manage rights, restrictions and responsibilities would seem generic and hence agnostic a jurisdiction s base cadastre. restrictions and responsibilities would seem generic and hence agnostic a jurisdiction s base For this reason, authors are view that work being undertaken by New Zealand has cadastre. For this reason, authors are view that work being undertaken by New Zealand has international appeal with opportunities for or jurisdictions and providers stware applications to benefit from this work and thus better realise efficiencies and value digital cadastral survey data.

17 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, international appeal with opportunities for or jurisdictions and providers stware applications to benefit from this work and thus better realise efficiencies and value digital cadastral survey data. Author Contributions: This content this article is result collaboration and contribution all three authors. Conflicts Interest: The authors declare no conflict interest. References and Notes 1. Gulliver, T.; Haanen, A.; Goodin, M. A Digital Cadastre for New Zealand by 2021: Leveraging Current System and Modern Technology. In Proceedings 5th International FIG Cadastre Workshop, Ans, Greece, October Gulliver, T. Developing a Digital Cadastral System for New Zealand. Master s Thesis, Department Geography, University Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, Gulliver, T.; Haanen, A. Developing a Three-Dimensional Digital Cadastral System for New Zealand. In Proceedings 25th FIG Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, June Gulliver, T. ASaTS and Opportunities for Cadastral Survey System. In Surveying + Spatial; New Zealand Institute Surveyors: Wellington, New Zealand, 2016; pp Gulliver, T. A Coordinate Cadastre for New Zealand? Yeah, nah! In Surveying + Spatial; New Zealand Institute Surveyors: Wellington, New Zealand, 2017; pp Cadastral Surveyors Licensing Board New Zealand. Register Licensed Cadastral Surveyors Available online: (accessed on 17 August 2017). 7. Rules for Cadastral Survey New Zealand. 8. Land Information New Zealand. Map New Zealand Cadastral Survey Act New Zealand. 10. Land Information New Zealand. Cadastre 2034: A Year Strategy for Developing Cadastral System Land Transfer Act New Zealand. 12. Land Transfer Act New Zealand. 13. Land Information New Zealand. Survey Plan SO 15456, Otago Land District Land Information New Zealand. Landonline Interrogation. August Unit Titles Act New Zealand. 16. Stoter, J.; van Oosterom, P. Cadastre in an International Context: Legal, Organizational, and Technological Aspects; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, Molenaar, M. An Introduction to Theory Spatial Object Modelling for GIS; CRC Press: London, UK, Kaufmann, J.; Steudler, D. Cadastre 2014: A Vision for a Future Cadastral System. Available online: (accessed on 31 August 2017). 19. Aien, A.; Kalantari, M.; Rajabifard, A.; Williamson, I.; Wallace, J. Towards integration legal and physical objects in cadastral data models. Land Use Policy 2013, 35, [CrossRef] 20. Atazadeh, B.; Rajabifard, A.; Kalantari, M. Assessing Performance Three BIM-Based Views Buildings for Communication and Management Vertically Stratified Legal Interests. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2017, 6, 198. [CrossRef] 21. Thompson, R.; van Oosterom, P. Validity Mixed 2D and Cadastral Parcels in Land Administration Domain Model. In Proceedings 3rd International FIG Workshop on Cadastres: Developments and Practices, Shenzhen, China, October Karki, S.; Thompson, R.; McDougall, K. Development Validation Rules to Support Digital Lodgement Cadastral Plans. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 2013, 40, [CrossRef] 23. Boundaries and Survey Maps Act Singapore by authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under terms and conditions Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (