UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Transcription

1 UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date: 30-Jun-2010 I, Kirsten C Schuttey, hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Master of Arts in Art History It is entitled: Recognition at Last: The Woman's Building and the Advancement of Women at the 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exposition Student Signature: Kirsten C Schuttey This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: Kimberly Paice, PhD Kimberly Paice, PhD Kristi Ann Nelson, PhD Kristi Ann Nelson, PhD Mark Harris, PhD Mark Harris, PhD 8/10/

2 Recognition at Last: The Woman s Building and the Advancement of Women at the 1893 Chicago World s Columbian Exposition A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ART HISTORY FACULTY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ART HISTORY by Kirsten Claudine Schuttey June 30, 2010 B.A., Lake Forest College, 2005 Committee Chair: Kimberly Paice, Ph.D.

3 Abstract The 1893 Chicago World s Columbian Exposition offered America an opportunity to showcase her cultural, intellectual, and scientific progress to the world. For the citizens of Chicago especially, the exposition provided the means to demonstrate that their city was an advanced metropolis at a time when many deemed it to be second rate. To achieve this goal, many forward-thinking women throughout the United States were successful in ensuring that the exposition included a separate exhibition space for women to showcase their talents in art and industry. The 1893 Woman s Building was not the first to exist at a world s fair, but it was the first that visibly symbolized women s advancement. Unlike former women s buildings, this Woman s Building was built by and controlled by women. This thesis explores the specific strategies that were used to make this building a success. It also draws attention to the fact that while the Woman s Building was only temporary, it was the first museum dedicated to women artists and it laid the groundwork for the National Museum for Women in the Arts in Washington D.C., which functions as a separate, but equal museum representing women in the arts. iii

4 iv

5 Acknowledgments There are many people that I want to thank for helping me as I completed this thesis. First, I want to thank my family. Without their love and support this thesis could not have been possible. I especially want to thank my mom for being an outstanding proof-reader and offering me suggestions to improve the thesis. I also want to thank several friends for their support and patience. First, I want to thank my dear friend, Michelle Moskauski for her encouragement and unfailing belief in me. I also want to thank my good friend Lee Edward Slaughter, damn New Yorker! His words of encouragement, never-ending debates, and games of Uno provided balance and humor on many occasions. So thank you Lee for reminding me to not take things so seriously. I want to thank my friend and classmate, Nancy McGowan. Nancy supported me during my time at the university and while working on my thesis. She aided me with my research and with proof-reading. She always offered constructive criticism and advice on all matters. So, a big thank you Nancy. I wish to thank my roommate and friend, April Harkness and her son, Alex for their support and making sure that I took breaks away from the computer screen and surprising me with cupcakes from Sugar Bliss. In addition, I want to thank my friends Mary Cook (Miss Mary Mack), Sharon Ossowski, Kristi Harley and Liz Lens for their words of wisdom and encouragement. They share my love of Chicago and have been wonderful cheerleaders for me. All researchers have their go to people and mine is my friend, Gwyneth Stupar. Aside from being a wonderful friend, as a reference librarian, Gwyn assisted me with gathering v

6 research material. When I could not or did not know how to find a particular original source, Gwyn always found it and got to me. I want to thank her for taking time out of her busy work schedule to help me with my research. Finally, I want to thank my thesis advisor, Kim Paice for helping me to complete this project. Kim offered wonderful guidance and support. Thank you again, Kim. vi

7 Contents Table of Contents 1 List of Illustrations 2-3 Introduction 4-11 Chapter 1: Bertha Honoré Palmer and the World s Columbian Exposition Board of Lady Managers Chapter 2: Women of the Woman s Building Chapter 3: Model Museum Conclusion Bibliography Illustrations

8 List of Illustrations Chapter 1 Illustration 1.1: Jackson Park, 1893 Illustration 1.2: Jackson Park, 2010 Illustration 1.3: The Court of Honor Illustration 1.4: Frederick MacMonnies, Columbian Fountain, Illustration 1.5: Frederick MacMonnies, Sculptor Illustration 1.6: Daniel Chester French, Republic, Illustration 1.7: Daniel Chester French, Sculptor Illustration 1.8: Frederick Olmstead, Landscape Architect Illustration 1.9: The Midway Plaisance Illustration 1.10: The Ferris Wheel Illustration 1.11: The Fine Arts Building, 1893 Illustration 1.12: The Museum of Science and Industry, 2010 Illustration 1.13: The Woman s Building, 1893 Illustration 1.14: Sophia Hayden, Architect Illustration 1.15: Floor Plans of the Woman s Building Illustration 1.16: Alice Rideout, Sculptor Illustration 1.17: Enid Yandell, Sculptor Illustration 1.18: Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, President of the 1876 Women s Centennial Committee Illustration 1.19: Woman s Pavilion at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition Illustration 1.20: Matilda Gage, President of the National Woman Suffrage Association Illustration 1.21: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Suffragist Movement Leader Illustration 1.22: Susan B. Anthony, Suffragist Movement Leader Illustration 1.23: Bertha Honoré Palmer, President of the Board of Lady Managers Illustration 1.24: Mr. Potter Palmer, Real-estate developer Illustration 1.25: Jane Addams, Social Reformer Illustration 1.26: Hull House Association Illustration 1.27: Fannie Barrier Williams 2

9 Chapter 2 Illustration 2.1: Sarah Hallowell, Exhibition Organizer Illustration 2.2: Halsey C. Ives, Director of the Fine Arts Building Illustration 2.3: Candace Wheeler, Interior Designer Illustration 2.4: Mary Cassatt, Painter Illustration 2.5: Mary Cassatt, Modern Woman, Illustration 2.6: Mary Fairchild MacMonnies Illustration 2.7: Mary Fairchild MacMonnies, Primitive Woman, Chapter 3 Illustration 3.1: Wilhelmina and Wallace Holladay, Founders of the National Museum for Women in the Arts Illustration 3.2: The National Museum of Women in the Arts Illustration 3.3: Elizabetta Sirani, Virgin and Child, Illustration 3.4: Maria Sibylla Merian, Dissertation in Insect Generation, Illustration 3.5: Maria Sibylla Merian, Metamorphosis in Surinam,

10 Introduction The 1893 Chicago World s Columbian Exposition drew an international crowd of 27.5 million 1 to explore the large variety of exhibitions submitted by many countries from all of the six inhabited continents. 2 World s fairs were international exhibitions at which countries from around the world could demonstrate their social advancement in art and industry. The world s fair to set this precedent was the London Crystal Palace Exhibition of Some of the firsts introduced at the World s Columbian Exposition include: the Ferris Wheel, the Midway, Shredded Wheat Cereal, and Edison s kinetoscope. It also served as Walter Disney s inspiration for his Magic Kingdom. Like previous world s fairs, it provided a venue for cultural and intellectual pursuits, as well as, recreation and entertainment. Due to the mélange of exhibitions and visitors, world s fairs were melting pots as people from all over the world and all walks of life gathered to take in the wonders of mankind. Thus, world s fairs were egalitarian as they were created by the people and for the people. Unlike other nineteenth-century social venues such as museums, cafes, theaters, and restaurants that observed social station, world s fairs had few social restrictions. In regards to the World s Columbian Exposition everyone from the illustrious Queen Isabella of Spain to the construction workers who built it attended. World s fairs of the nineteenth century showcased the works of contemporary artists from around the world, and significantly aided in the recognition of those overlooked in mainstream society and only known locally. The works often included examples of various schools of art. For example, Romanticism and Impressionism were officially introduced to the world at the 1893 Chicago World s Columbian Exposition. In addition to schools of art, world s fairs 1 Stanley Applebaum, The World s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover Publication Inc., 1980), It is difficult to find the exact count of countries since not all countries exhibited in all the buildings. 4

11 introduced the names of contemporary artists to society at large, names that are instantly recognizable today, such as Claude Monet ( ), Mary Cassatt ( ), Pierre- Auguste Renoir ( ), James McNeill Whistler ( ), etc In regards to fine arts, world s fairs were primarily a spin-off of the old European salons; however, as stated by Elizabeth Gilmore Holt in her book The Art of All Nations , art showcased at world s fairs was displayed in a neutral setting, removed from the environments that, in the past, had contributed to their symbolic associations. 3 As a result, artists became recognized and judged by their own artistic merit as first demonstrated at London s Crystal Place Exhibition of This study focuses on the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition Woman s Building. It was not the first such building in existence, since the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 and the New Orleans Cotton Centennial Exposition of had both possessed one; however, it was the first to significantly contribute to the elevation of the status of both famous as well as less known female exhibitors nationally and internationally. 4 Several factors made the Columbian Exposition Woman s Building particularly significant. For instance, prominent women funded, supervised, created, and decorated the building; and wrote about the Building and its exhibits. These women positively and successfully shaped public reception of the Woman s Building and its exhibits. I therefore examine primary sources such as guidebooks, magazines, and newspapers that were published specifically for the fair to explain the Building s importance by discussing its socio-cultural context, particularly in light of women s gender roles during an era marked by women s search for more rights, self reliance, and suffrage. My thesis 3 Elizabeth Gilmore Holt, The Art of All Nations (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982), xxv. 4 Maud Howe Elliott, Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building (New York and France: Goupil & Company and Valadon and Co., 1893), 15. 5

12 explores how the Woman s Building affected the lives of women artists just prior to, during, and following the Columbian Exposition. Extensive attention has been paid by academic scholars to the World s Columbian Exposition and the Woman s Building over the years. My research centers on official publications about the fair. Major Ben C. Truman, a member of the fair s committee, gives in his 1893 book History of the World s Fair a contemporary, comprehensive account of the making of the World s Columbian Exposition, recording who was involved, the buildings included in it, and the festivities surrounding it. In addition, John J. Flinn wrote the Official Guide to the World s Columbian Exposition, which assisted visitors through the fair and contained pertinent information regarding the fair and the buildings exhibited. Maude Howe Elliott s 1893 guidebook of the Woman s Building, titled Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition, describes and summarizes the history of the building, its construction and the various exhibits and events housed within. In addition, it includes essays with important cultural information about the social, economic, educational, and political status of women of various nationalities in I also examine unofficial publications such as Rand McNally s guidebook, A Week at the Fair and a detailed guidebook compiled by the Chicago Daily News (1893). These sources shed light on valuable perceptions about the Woman s Building and the Fair in general. I then examine the commentary of more recent researchers. For example, Reid Badger examined the fair as an important historical and cultural event in his book The Great America Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (1973). Erik Larson in his book Devil in the White City (2003) emphasizes the importance of the Exposition in the creation of contemporary urban Chicago and its recognition as a modern metropolis on 6

13 equal par with other urban cities such as New York, London, and Paris. He addresses the key players, both men and women who were actively involved with it. In her book, The Fair Women: The Story of the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (1981), Jeanne Madeline Weimann examines the women involved with the exposition in general, but specifically focuses on those women who were involved with the creation of the Woman s Building. She explores the status of women just before and during the time of the fair. Her book also gives numerous mini-biographies about many important women. Finally, the Ph.D. Dissertation, Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition (1996) by Charlene Gallo Garfinkle, outlines the actual construction of the building and those women involved in its making and decoration, paying close attention to the Board of Lady Managers, the governance body of the Woman s Building, and those individuals with whom they worked. Her dissertation is the first to address the key female players in the creation of the Woman s Building and the first to describe in detail the actual structural development of this building. It discusses the development of the Woman s Building as a visible manifestation of the New Woman. She also examines how this image of the so-called New Woman challenged the traditional role of women through the modern assertion of women s work. 5 While these sources closely examine the women involved in the creation of the building, they do not examine the strategies that aided in promoting and elevating women artists showcased within the building, nor do they try to explore its impact after the Exposition was over. As addressed in my first chapter, one strategy that aided the women artists is the fact that this building was financed and popularized by socially prominent women. Unlike previous 5 Garfinkle, ix-x. 7

14 Woman s Buildings, this one was created and governed by elite women. Female leaders from around the world including the Queen of England, Queen Margherita of Italy, the Empress of Japan, and the Empress of Russia 6 willingly donated works of art and family heirlooms known to be produced by female hands to be displayed in this building. The most influential American woman involved with the planning and implementation of the Woman s Building was Bertha Honoré Palmer ( ). She presided over the Board of Lady Managers for the exposition, oversaw the planning and execution of the Woman s Building, and wrote an essay, The Growth of the Woman s Building, for the guidebook Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building, describing the process. Palmer s zeal for the Woman s Building derived from her love of art and her belief that women needed to be recognized for their achievements in society. She was a passionate art collector and loaned several pieces from her private collection to the fair s Fine Arts Building. Due to Palmer s determination that the Woman s Building would be international, she petitioned for the involvement of other countries. Other members of the Board of Lady Managers were Mrs. Ralph Trautmann, Mrs. Edwin C. Burleigh, Mrs. Charles Price, Miss Katherine L. Minor, Mrs. Beriah Wilkins, Mrs. M.D. Thatcher Mrs. Flora Beall Ginty, Mrs. Margaret Blaine Salisbury, Mrs. Russ B. Harrison, Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, Mrs. Susan G. Cooke, Mrs. Helen M. Barker, Mrs. Amey M. Starkweather, and Mrs. Candace Wheeler. 7 Unlike previous world s fairs, The Board of Lady Managers was one of three managing bodies of the Columbian Exposition which also included the National Commission, later known as the World s Columbian Commission, which served as the National body, and the World s Columbian Exposition, a stock corporation. The Board of Lady Managers patterned itself after 6 Elliott, John J. Flinn, Official Guide to the World s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: The Columbian Guide Company, 1893), 25. 8

15 the National Commission. Thus the Board consisted of two Lady Managers from each State, Territory and the District of Columbia, eight Managers-at-Large, nine Managers from Chicago and alternates for each. 8 In addition, the arts and crafts in this building came from all over the world. As a result, these works of art, especially those coming from foreign courts possessed an extra air of sophistication. My second chapter focuses on the fact that the Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition was unique in that it was built, managed, and decorated by female artists. Sophia Hayden, a graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), designed it; decorations on the exterior were created by Enid Yandell and Alice Rideout, both accomplished sculptors. Sara Hallowell 9 worked closely with the Women s Board to secure artists for the Woman s Building, in addition to her work as Assistant Director of the Fine Arts Building. In cooperation with Hallowell, Mrs. Candace Wheeler, an executive official of the Board of Lady Managers and a prominent Interior Designer in New York, designed the interior of the Woman s Building. The two well-known female artists most associated with the decoration of the building are Mary Cassatt ( ) and Mary Fairchild MacMonnies ( ). 10 They were commissioned to paint a set of murals for the Great Hall that depicted women s progress in society. MacMonnies s mural depicted the duties of the primitive woman in her ignorance and naiveté while Cassatt s mural depicted the modern woman of nineteenth century society, with all of her knowledge and productivity. While these murals illustrated women s advancement in society, the significance of these murals to my thesis study is that they were painted by two 8 Garfinkle, 9. 9 Before this she had worked as an art agent became secretary in the art department for the Interstate Industrial Exposition of Both Cassatt and MacMonnies came from wealthy American families, but decided to pursue their careers in France. Each woman studied under revered painters such as Edgar Degas ( ) and Puvis de Chavannes ( ). MacMonnies received extra attention at the fair because both she and her husband, sculptor Frederic MacMonnies had been commissioned to produce works of art for it. 9

16 established female artists. Thus the two artists themselves were used to bring in more viewers as they also extolled the progress and contribution of all women. By featuring such well-known American women artists, the Woman s Building also brought attention to lesser-known female artists and showcased decorative as well as fine arts, thus potentially elevating the women artists from all realms because of their connection with this building. The importance of the 1893 Woman s Building is that it clearly symbolized the advancement of women in general. In fact, this building owed much to the Suffrage Movement. For the women involved at the time, this building was for the first time, completely controlled and created by women by a declaration of Congress and thus a manifestation for them of the cherished belief as stated in the Declaration of Independence that all people, including women, are created equal. As stated in Garfinkle s dissertation, the Philadelphia Centennial and the New Orleans Cotton Expositions Woman s Buildings were designed, made, and controlled by men. 11 The impact that this building made extended beyond the realm of the World s Fair. My third chapter illustrates the influence of the Woman s Building on the National Museum of Women in Arts in Washington D.C., United States (NMWA). I argue that the Woman s Building was the first, though temporary, museum dedicated to women in the arts. Since its extinction, I attest there is still a need for woman-only museums. The NMWA continues the legacy of the Woman s Building as a separate, but equal museum dedicated to women artists. This legacy includes a permanent temple-like museum, community outreach, education, global awareness and connectedness. As a separate, but equal museum, it is guaranteed that women artists will be honored and never forgotten. For this chapter, I primarily 11 Charlene Gallo Garfinkle, Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Women s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition, Ph.D. diss., University of Santa Barbara, 1996,

17 examine the writings of the museum founder Wilhelmina Cole Holladay in her memoir, A Museum of Their Own: The National Museum for Women in the Arts. I take a socio-cultural and contextual approach to gathering and interpreting research, focusing on the traditional and changing gender roles and perceptions of the period. In addition to reviewing source material related specifically to the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition, I also examine literature concerning the Suffrage Movement and the cultural changes of the late nineteenth century. Unlike previous scholars who have researched the Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition, I establish that the success of the building resulted from the work of influential and talented women using various strategies during its planning and implementation. I then focus on the impact of the Woman s Building on American society of the time, especially regarding the status of women in society and their involvement in the art world. I take into account the other events and social trends that might also be responsible for positive changes in women s lives. Patterns of social interaction, for example, were changing with the development of women s recreational and professional organizations such as the Young Women s Christian Association (Y.W.C.A.) and the Women s Association of America. These institutions aided women socially and professionally by providing social networking activities and professional development. These organizations were founded by wealthy, liberal-minded women who believed in women s rights and progress in society through social networking and venues designed to meet the needs of women. In order to fully assess these changes, I consulted contemporary documents of the period. Through this research, I argue that the Woman s Building at the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition not only aided the artists exhibited, but also significantly supported women s progress in art and society. 11

18 Chapter 1: Bertha Honoré Palmer and the World s Columbian Exposition Board of Lady Managers Introduction: The Columbian World s Exposition of 1893 World s fairs were international exhibitions at which countries from around the world could demonstrate their achievements in art, industry, and technology. The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 was no different. It drew a crowd of 27.5 million people from its opening day on May 1, 1893 until the day it closed on October 31, While there were many firsts introduced at this exposition, it was the architecture, the White City style, rather than the exhibits themselves that was the most striking feature of this exhibition and has since left its mark in both history and architecture. The term White City refers to the predominantly white facades of the exhibition buildings. Architecturally, the White City had its roots in the ornamental Beaux-Arts training, but was classical, with strong elements of Romanism, and Renaissance in style. 13 The Exposition was situated on the 600 acres of what still is today Jackson Park in, Illinois (illus 1.1) (illus. 1.2). The park extends north to south from 57th Street to 67th Street and extends east to the lake front. It was divided into three main parts: the Court of Honor, the Lagoon, and the Midway Plaisance. The Court of Honor along with the Fine Arts Building is what most scholars term to be the true White City. The Court of Honor (illus. 1.3) was centered on a 350 foot wide 1,100 foot long basin. 14 Within the basin stood the fountain of honor, The Columbian Fountain (illus. 1.4) by the Brooklyn-born artist Frederick MacMonnies (illus. 1.5) ( ), on the west end and on the east end stood the sculpture, Republic (illus. 1.6) by the American sculptor Daniel Chester French ( ) (illus. 1.7). The Columbian Fountain 12 Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago World s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover Publication Inc., 1980), Appelbaum, Jeanne Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1981),

19 represented Christopher Columbus's discovery of America. The fountain itself, depicted the female figure Columbia riding on a barge-with Fame at the prow and Time at the stern-that was rowed by the allegories of the arts, sciences and industries, representing the Exposition itself. The buildings of the Court of Honor included: the Administration Building, the Terminal Station, the Manufactures Building, the Music Hall, the Agriculture Building, the Casino, the Machinery and Mining Buildings. The Lagoon which still graces Jackson Park was designed by Frederick Olmstead ( ) (illus.1.8). It provided the main north-south axis of the exposition. The exposition buildings located here, faced onto the Lagoon and included: the Transportation Building with its famous Golden Doorway designed by Louis Sullivan, Festival Hall, the Horticultural Building, the White Star Steamship Company Pavilion, the State of Illinois Building, Merchant Tailors Building, Marine Café, the Fisheries Building, the United States Government Building, the Japanese Hōōden located on the Wooden Island in the Lagoon itself, the Children's Building and the Woman's Building. The Midway Plaisance is the stretch of parkland just to the west of Jackson Park along 59th and 60th Streets that connects it to Washington Park. It was designed as the first "separate amusement area in a World's Fair. 15 The Midway was modeled after the anthropological foreignvillage introduced as the Paris Universal Exhibition of While, the Chicago Midway hosted a number of foreign villages and ethnological exhibits, it also consisted of restaurants, beer gardens, camel rides, and theatrical shows. (illus. 1.9). The major attraction of the Midway was the world's first Ferris Wheel (illus. 1.10). The Ferris Wheel was 15 Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago World s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover Publication Inc., 1980),

20 250 feet in diameter, 825 feet in circumference, and thirty feet wide. It was raised fifteen feet off the ground and could hold up to 1440 people; each car was designed to hold forty people. 16 In addition to these three major sections, two smaller sections lay just to the north of the Lagoon and south of the Court of Honor, and were referred to as the North Pond and the South Pond. The North Pond was home to the Fine Arts Building (illus. 1.11), now the Museum of Science and Industry, (illus. 1.12), the only remaining building from the exposition. 17 The North Pond also housed the various state and international buildings that were represented at the exposition. 18 The South Pond was reserved for overflow exhibits that could not fit into the main buildings. Such exhibits included models of the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, Krupp's Gun Exhibit, and the French Colonies. South Pond did contain a few functional buildings including: The Shoe and Leather, Dairy and Anthropological Buildings. It also contained the Stock Pavilion for animal displays. The Woman s Building As previously mentioned, the Woman's Building (illus. 1.13) was located along the west side of the Lagoon. It was the only building at the exposition that was designed by a female architect, Sophia Hayden ( ) (illus. 1.14). The design of the Woman's Building was a 16 Jeanne Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1981), The Palace of Beaux- Arts was converted into an art museum at the end of the exposition. It remained the Field Columbian Museum until it closed in It re-opened as the current Museum of Science and Industry at the 1933 World s Fair: Century of Progress, which was also hosted in Chicago. 18 State Buildings included: Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The states to be Arizona, Oklahoma, and New Mexico were housed within the Joint Territorial Building Foreign Buildings included: Brazil, Canada, Ceylon, Colombia, Costa Rica, East India, France, Germany, Great Britain, Guatemala, Haiti, Japan, New South Wales, Norway, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and Venezuela. 14

21 Classical three floor Italian Renaissance Villa, 199 x 388 feet 19 with a two-story great hall, 65 x 120 feet. 20 The galleries centered around the Great Hall on both the ground level and the second floor (illus. 1.15). Entrances to the building were located at all four axis points on the ground level and staircases at each of the four corners of the hall led up to the second floor. The third floor consisted of a roof top garden with a promenade on the north and south wings. 21 The total coast of the building was $140, The building's exterior statuary representing Charity, Sacrifice, Wisdom, and Virtue were also created by a woman, Alice Rideout of California (1874- n.d.) (illus. 1.16). Adorning the roof garden was a caryatid that was designed by Enid Yandell of Kentucky ( ) (illus 1.17). While the Woman s Building served a distinct purpose, it was designed to be a peaceful and inviting place with a feeling of hospitality suggested throughout as indicated by Maud Howe Elliot s essay, The Building and Its Decoration in Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building, the official guidebook to the building. Elliot acknowledges that the building is feminine in character, but its strength is veiled in grace therefore making it the ideal place to soothe, to rest, to refresh the great army of sight-seers who march daily through the Fair. 23 It was the classical beauty of this building with it roof-gardens and picturesque views that the newspapers of the time praised. While providing a reprieve for the weary sightseers with its arcades and roof gardens, the Woman s Building exhibited its own agenda. 19 Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago World s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover Publication Inc., 1980), Jeanne Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1981), Ibid. 22 Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago World s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover Publication Inc., 1980), Maud Howe Elliot, Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally & Co., 1894),

22 The Woman's Building showcased woman's social achievements and advancement throughout time. It made it evident that women were as capable as men in almost every department except "such strenuous ones as heavy machinery, mining and the like." 24 Marian Shaw, a reporter for The Argus in North Dakota, wrote in praise of the Woman s Building stating: the Woman s Building, that monument of the best the world has to show of human progress, since it signalizes the emancipation of woman. 25 Some of the exhibits included a model kitchen, hospital, and library; but it was the exhibits of arts and handicraft by women from around the world that predominated and received the most acclaim. Of the art objects housed in this building, the two most important were the murals of the great hall representing Primitive Woman and Modern Woman painted by the artists Mary Fairchild MacMonnies and Mary Cassatt, which will be discussed in greater detail in chapter two of this thesis. The Woman s Building contained a two-story Great Hall with the galleries and committee rooms surrounding it. The galleries on the Ground Floor were primarily designated to showcase the arts and handicrafts of women internationally. Displayed in the North Gallery were art exhibits from Russia, Australia, England, Ireland, and Scotland. The exhibits not only displayed the variety of art and crafts these countries were known for; but they also gave historical introductions of the women who influenced the arts and supported the artists. Many of these historical introductions were published in the guidebook for the Building. While different genres of art were exhibited, it is without a doubt that the decorative arts such as lace-making and screen painting were the most popular. However, Russia and England also emphasized their female literary artists as well. Other exhibits located in the North Gallery included: stained glass, dress making, paper flowers, applied arts, and a corn palace. The applied arts exhibit included: 24 Ibid. 25 Marin Shaw, World s Fair Notes (Minnesota: Pogo Press, 1992),

23 embroidery and other forms of needle work, stained-glass, wall paper design, china decoration, book cover design, and illustration. For this exhibit, the well-know Interior Designer and Lady Manager, Candace Wheeler wrote an essay, Applied Arts in the Woman s Building for the official guidebook. The South Gallery hosted exhibits on the arts and handicrafts from: Germany, Austria, Ceylon, Spain, Cape of Good Hope, Sweden, Siberia, Mexico, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, India, and Brazil. Like the exhibits in the North Gallery, these exhibits also showcased different mediums of art. These displays also offered historical background on the different genres of art and the women who supported them. Some of the most popular works of art included the oil paintings from France and the lace work from France, Italy, Spain, and Belgium. The galleries surrounding the Great Hall were dedicated to women in the fields of science, industry, mechanics, and education. There was also a gallery that hosted exhibits of Native American and African women. These exhibits depicted the lives of these women as well as their handicraft. In addition to the galleries, the west side of the Great Hall served as the Main entrance and coat check for the Woman s Building and the east side looked out onto the Lagoon. The Gallery Level of the Woman s Building contained the offices and meeting rooms for the Board of Lady Managers on the north and south sides. The north side also contained a model modern kitchen and an assembly room with a stage that was used for speeches and various presentations. Located on the south side of the Gallery Level was the private office of Bertha Honoré Palmer, the President of the Board of Lady Managers. Next to her office was a large meeting room. Outlining the upper level of the Great Hall were other various committee rooms and exhibition galleries. 17

24 Along the west side there were meeting rooms for both the National and Foreign Committees. In addition to the meeting rooms, there was an exhibition gallery on African American Women, a model school and nursery, and the Library and record keeping rooms. The Library was designed by Candace Wheeler, who will be discussed further in chapter two of this thesis. The Library functioned as an exhibit rather than a working library. It consisted of writings of both American and foreign women. It held books and manuscripts by such well-known women authors as Charlotte Bronté, Jane Austin, George Elliot, and Emily Dickinson as discussed in Candace Wheeler s essay, The Library, as found in the official guidebook. Located on the east side of the Gallery Level were five sitting parlors: The Connecticut Room, the North Carolina Room, the Cincinnati Room, the Kentucky Room, and the California Room. These parlors represented the North, South, East, and West regions of the United States. Each of the parlors was decorated according to that region. The Cincinnati Room was unique in that it showcased examples of Cincinnati and Rookwood pottery that the city was known for. In addition to these parlors, there was also a Japanese Parlor that was decorated by a collection of painted and embroidered screens. Women and the World s Expositions The Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago, Illinois, was championed by the woman known as the Ladies Lady, powerhouse and wealthy socialite Bertha Honoré Palmer. Although it was not the first exposition to host a building dedicated to the professions and pursuits of women, the Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition received more acclaim and international attention than the previous ones at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 and the New Orleans Cotton Centennial of 18

25 This building s primary function was to recognize the achievements of women in both the arts and industry. Unlike previous Woman s Buildings, the Columbian version was created and governed by powerful and renowned women of the late nineteenth century, as stipulated through an act of the United States Congress. The act reads: And said Commission is authorized and required to appoint a Board of Lady Managers of such number and to perform such duties as may be prescribed by said Commission. Said board may appoint one or more members of all committees authorized to award prizes for exhibits which may be produced in whole or in part by female labor. 26 This bill became law on April 25, 1890 after it was signed by President Benjamin Harrison. Having the Columbian Exposition s Woman s Building under the direction of women was truly a great accomplishment for women all over the United States, particularly after the great disappointments experienced in the expositions of To understand the gravity of this accomplishment and the important role that Bertha Honoré Palmer played, one needs some historical context regarding the involvement of women in the 1876 Exposition. The 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition was originally planned to take place without women being involved or represented; however, a year into planning, the Centennial Board realized it needed women to help to raise funds, so they instituted the Women s Centennial Committee. 27 This Committee was composed of thirteen women, one for each of the original states. 28 The committee head, Elizabeth Duane Gillespie (illus. 1.18), great granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, only accepted the appointment by stipulating that in return 26 Maud Howe Elliot, Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally & Co., 1894), Jeanne Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1981), Ibid 19

26 for her time and energy, she and her co-workers wanted a women s display in the Main Exhibition Hall. 29 The Women s Centennial Committee was promised ample space for a woman s exhibit inside the Main Building. In turn, Gillespie and women throughout the United States began selling stock subscriptions 30 for the Exhibition, holding Centennial Tea Parties, and selling Martha Washington medals and other souvenirs, raising, $93, Yet, on June 11, 1875, Gillespie received two disappointing letters. 31 The first, from the Director General of the Exposition, stated that there was no room in the main building to display the work of women suggesting that for about $30,000 they could build a very credible building of their own. 32 The second letter, from the Chairman of Grounds, Planning, and Building, contradicted the first one, by stating that there was no more money in the coffers to contribute towards the women s building. 33 The fundraisers decided to create the Woman s Pavilion at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition on their own, refocusing their energy by sending exhibit materials, volunteers, and money to Philadelphia. In October 1875, construction for the Woman s Building designed by the male architect of the Main Exhibition Hall began. According to Mrs. Gillespie, We never thought of employing a woman architect! And thus made our first great mistake. 34 The Woman s Pavilion (illus. 1.19) opened on May 10, 1876, demonstrating female resourcefulness. In addition to the exhibits, the Pavilion housed a library, art gallery, kindergarten annex, and the 29 Ibid 30 Weimann, 2. Stock subscriptions were legal agreements between private individuals and the Centennial Committee for those who chose to invest their money into the exposition. 31 Ibid 32 Ibid 33 Ibid 34 Weimann, 3. 20

27 offices of the New Century for Women- the only regularly published newspaper at the Centennial. 35 Despite the fact that the Woman s Pavilion did open, many American women including Gillespie felt insulted by the broken promises of the Centennial Board and demanded change. On the same day that this building opened, the President of the National Woman Suffrage Association, Matilda Gage (illus. 1.20) held a meeting at the New York chapter stating the words of former First Lady Abigail Adams: We are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by laws in which we have had no voice or representation. The Suffragists at this meeting decided that they would go to Philadelphia not to rejoice but to declare their freedom. 36 Elizabeth Cady Stanton (illus. 1.21), along with Susan B. Anthony of the Suffragist Movement stated: it was insulting that the Woman s Pavilion on the centennial grounds is an afterthought, as theologians claim woman herself to have been. 37 They concluded that the little building was no true exhibit of woman s work. 38 The neglect and betrayal of women s work in the Exhibition by the Centennial Board motivated the Suffragists to create a Declaration of Women s Rights, which was read aloud by Susan B. Anthony (illus. 1.22) on July 4, 1876, in Seneca Falls, New York. The Declaration pointed out that despite America s pride in winning independence from English tyrannies, the nation continued to commit a great many tyrannies against its own women citizens as well. By the summer of 1889, while the Paris Universal Exhibition was still in progress, talk commenced regarding the next great world s fair: The World s Columbian Exposition. The 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid 37 Weimann, Ibid 21

28 United States hoped to be the host country of an exposition that would outshine all the others. While it was competing to be the host, the influential businessmen and the politicians did not want the interference of the Suffragists that occurred at the Centennial Exposition. However, American society was changing as the nation became an industrial power with a new and progressive class of millionaires who were self-made men with social and cultural aspirations 39 and strong-willed wives. These women became leaders not only because of their wealth and connections, but also, because of their intelligence and energy. More importantly, their power to influence the press could not be shrugged off. As will be discussed further, it was these New Women who were to demand representation at the Chicago s fair. 40 By the time that the Board of Lady Managers was formed in 1890, these powerful women began to work in earnest toward correcting the problems of the past and achieving important objectives for women. Since the underlying goal of these world s expositions was to demonstrate human advancement, America had to prove its cultural, intellectual, and scientific progress to the world. These New Women promoted the idea that the USA could not be fully recognized as a progressive power without the contributions of its female citizens. Chicago was in particular need of demonstrating that it was just as advanced a metropolis as New York, London, and Paris. The forward-thinking women of Chicago, such as Bertha Honoré Palmer, Sarah Hallowell and Jane Addams, wanted to demonstrate just how much women aided society through their art and industries; they argued that showcasing the works of women would establish the city s progressiveness and bring further honor to Chicago. 39 Weimann, 5 40 Weimann,

29 Moreover, in order to make the Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition truly international and worthy of the title world s exposition, the Board of Lady Managers appealed to female leaders from around the world who eagerly and willingly donated works of art and family heirlooms produced by female hands to be displayed in this building. Several of these prominent women sat on the Board of Lady Managers as foreign commissioners, including the Queen of England, Queen Margherita of Italy, the Empress of Russia, and the Empress of Japan. Several even wrote essays for the official guide book of the Woman s Building, Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building. The American board members included Mrs. Ralph Trautmann, Mrs. Edwin C. Burleigh, Mrs. Charles Price, Miss Katherine L. Minor, Mrs. Beriah Wilkins, Mrs. M.D. Thatcher, Mrs. Flora Beall Ginty, Mrs. Margaret Blaine Salisbury, Mrs. Russ B. Harrison, Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, Mrs. Susan G. Cooke, Mrs. Helen M. Barker, Mrs. Amey M. Starkweather, and Mrs. Candace Wheeler and their president Bertha Honoré Palmer ( ). These women aided in the success of the Woman s Building through their talents, wealth, public recognition, and love of art. Arguably the most influential American woman involved with the planning and implementation of the Woman s Building was Bertha Honoré Palmer ( ) (illus. 1.23). She presided over the Board of Lady Managers for the exposition and administrated the planning and execution of the Woman s Building. She then wrote an essay describing the process titled, The Growth of the Woman s Building published in Art and Handicraft, the official guide book for the Woman s Building written and edited by Maud Howe Elliot. According to Teresa Dean in her book, White City and as written by Charlene Gallo Garfinkle in her doctoral dissertation Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition (1996), Mrs. Palmer had everything beauty, wealth, tact, and just 23

30 enough popularity to hold the rabble of women that she had to deal with in check. 41 By the term rabble, she referred to dissenting voices to her appointment, which will be discussed at the end of the chapter. Bertha Honoré: A Life of Philanthropy and Social Networking Bertha Honoré married Potter Palmer ( ) (illus. 1.24), a prominent Chicago businessman and real-estate developer, in He owned Palmer Dry Goods and Department Store, which he sold to Marshall Field in Through his connections, Bertha Palmer gained access to the city s elite. By 1865, Palmer was worth seven million dollars. 42 Like his wife, Potter was involved in several philanthropic organizations such as the Young Men s Christian Organization (YMCA) and the Citizens League, which worked to check crime and drinking among juveniles. He too was aware of the disparities between the rich and the poor in society. These organizations connected him to many other noted philanthropists, situating the Palmers in an influential network of wealthy people. Coming from a family of wealth and high social standing, Bertha Honoré Palmer was raised with modern social graces, 43 including philanthropy, which helped establish her as an active American socialite who also had a sense of responsibility to the needy. During the Civil War, the Honorés aided soldiers from both the Confederate and Union Armies. They comforted Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas in Chicago with food and clothing They supported the Northwestern Sanitary fairs, held in 1863 and 1865, to raise money for supplies to aid wounded 41 Charlene G. Garfinkle, Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition, Ph. D. diss, (University of Santa Barbara, 1996), Rima Lumin Schultz and Adele Hast, Women Building Chicago (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), Ishbel Ross, Silhouette in Diamonds (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1960),

31 and ill Union soldiers. 44 Due to her family history and connections, Bertha Palmer s philanthropy and access to elite society were not limited to Chicago. When her sister, Ida ( ), married Frederick Dent ( ), the son of President Ulysses S. Grant in 1874, Palmer connected with the elite from all over the country, which would prove useful during her reign as the President of the Board of Lady Managers for the World s Columbian Exposition of After her marriage, Palmer continued to carry out this sense of noblesse oblige through the rest of her life. She strove to help the working poor through a number of charitable institutions. She was a member of the Christian Temperance Union and supported Jane Adams Hull House; 45 (illus. 1.25) (illus. 1.26) which specialized in aiding Chicago s needy through charity and social programs. Every Christmas, Palmer held an annual Charity Ball to benefit social reform and promote the work of Hull House. According to Ishbel Ross, Palmer was the first of the very wealthy women in America to give fighting as well as financial support to the cause of working women. 46 Mrs. Palmer even held meetings in her home for girls who labored in factories, and she endeavored to study and to understand their living and working conditions. She also became a patron of the Women s Trade Union League. In fact, it was largely through her efforts that the millinery workers of Chicago were organized and their working conditions improved, 47 according to Ross. Palmer held firm to her work to improve the education of 44 Rima Lumin Schultz and Adele Hast, Women Building Chicago (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), Jane Addams Hull House Association, Mission, (accessed March, ). This organization was founded in 1889 by Jane Adams and is still in existence today. The mission of Hull House has always been to aid Chicago s under deserved. Hull House continues to provide social programs for 60,000 Chicago residents. In addition, Hull House advocates for social and public policy reform. 46 Ross, Ross,

32 women and their economic status. She was an advocate of the theory of equal pay for equal work. 48 In order to also better the lives of upper and middle class women, Palmer placed a high value on brains. According to her biographer Ross, Palmer once stated: She doubted that men could generally admire the stupid, superficial fools they have trained us to become. 49 Just as working class women needed better education, so too did women from the leisure class. She was a member of the Chicago Woman s Club, which aided women professionally through social networking and various recreational and professional programs. Women artists were aided specifically through the social and monetary sponsorship provided by this society of wealthy and politically connected women. In addition to philanthropic organizations, Mrs. Palmer was involved in many artistic clubs promoting the arts. From 1878 to 1884, Palmer served on the Chicago Society of Decorative Art (CSDA). 50 This organization was an offshoot of the New York Society of Decorative Art which provided women with career opportunities through the sale of decorative objects made in the home. While the CSDA was modeled on the New York Society, it partnered with the Art Institute of Chicago (AIC) in 1888 and abandoned its philanthropy as it pursued a more cultural patronage, 51 changing its name to the Antiquarian Society of the Art Institute. Through its partnership with the AIC, the society focused on purchasing decorative arts for the museum and in particular strengthening the museum s collection of medieval tapestries. The result of this association allowed for women of Palmer s class to negotiate a close relationship 48 Ibid. 49 Ross, This organization was funded by fellow Lady Manager, Mrs. Candace Wheeler in 1877 as will be discussed in the second chapter. 51 Rima Lumin Schultz and Adele Hast, Women Building Chicago (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001),

33 and influence fine arts museums, institutions whose leadership was exclusively composed of men. 52 Thus, women were for the first time not only actively shaping museum collections by raising money and even donating works of art, but women were also influencing the purpose and missions of museums in general. In addition to the CSDA, Palmer was a member and later the president of the Fortnightly Club, a literary club whose members studied music, literature and the fine arts. Clearly, Mrs. Palmer was active in the social club life of the late-nineteenth century that focused attention on the arts and social reform. These social clubs in many ways aided in the creation of the Woman s Building particularly for networking purposes. As stated by Rima Lunin Schultz and Adele Hast in their book, Women Building Chicago , These memberships placed Palmer at the heart of late-nineteenth-century women s culture, preparing her for the leading role she took in managing the participation of women in the World s Columbian Exposition in In fact, the club system, which had been in existence prior to the Exposition and the establishment of the General Federation of Women s Clubs in 1890, 54 contributed to the framework that led to the success of greater participation of women in the World s Columbian Exposition. A Great Lover of Art Also crucial to her role in the exposition, Palmer was a passionate art collector. Her private collection covered three periods- Romanticism, the Barbizon school, and the Impressionists. Palmer is often credited with introducing Impressionism to the American public by eagerly acquiring it at a time when other collectors viewed Impressionist art as less than 52 Ibid 53 Ibid. 54 Charlene G. Garfinkle, Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Woman s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition, Ph. D. diss, (University of Santa Barbara, 1996),

34 desirable. According to Daniel Cotton Rich, a former Director of the Art Institute of Chicago, Mrs. Palmer found it adventurous and chic to back the Impressionists. They made fashionable interior decoration as well as experimental art. 55 Not only was Palmer one of the first collectors to embrace Modern Art, mainly Impressionism, but she also actively worked to know and meet the artists themselves. When she went to France she visited the artists in their homes and studios. 56 Palmer lent several of her Barbizon and Impressionist pieces to the Fine Arts Building of the World s Columbia Exposition, thus promoting modern art. It was said that she possessed an open mind and had an alert eye for new trends and that her interest in art was genuine. 57 When Mrs. Palmer backed a new development in art, she was apt to command support, or at least to engage the attention of those around her. 58 Due to her interest in the new and contemporary arts, Palmer supported the talents of the women artists that were showcased within the Woman s Building, which included Mary Cassatt, Mary MacMonnies, Lydia Emmet, Rosina Emmet, and Lydia Amanda Brewster. Palmer did not just limit herself to European art. She collected American paintings as well. She owned paintings by Mary Cassatt, James McNeill Whistler, F. Hopkinson Smith, Eastman Johnson, George Hitchcock, George Fuller, and George Inness. Due to her interest and leadership in the world of art, Mrs. Palmer developed cultivated tastes and due to her social awareness had an understanding of what the Woman s Building should promote in terms of fine art and handicraft. Bertha Honoré Palmer: Her Leadership and Challenges 55 Ishbel Ross, Silhouette in Diamonds (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1960), Ross, Ross, Ross,

35 During the World s Columbian Exposition, Bertha Palmer, became known as the Nation s Hostess and as explained by Aline Saarinen in The Proud Possessors (1958), Of the 27,539,521 people who visited the World s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, all the best people and all the illustrious guests of honor were received by Mrs. Potter Palmer in her battlemented castle on the wind-swept shores of Lake Michigan. 59 In addition to her social skills, Palmer proved to be an astute business woman. When she was appointed as the president of the Board of Lady Managers in 1891, she understood the value of face to face meetings and traveled abroad to seek audiences with powerful female leaders including their Majesties the Queen of Belgium and the Queen of Italy, and other royalty from the Empress of Russia to the Queen of Siam 60 In addition to requesting funds from women abroad, she stubbornly implored the United States House of Representatives for more money for the Woman s Building. Clearly Mrs. Palmer knew that in order for the Woman s Building to work, she needed women of international power and fame to be involved with the planning of the building; her goal was to get people of power and wealth interested and involved. Therefore she used her networking skills to bring in money, talent, and art for the Woman s Building. Palmer became President of the Board of Lady Managers. However, she was not the only choice as there were many who would have preferred a more liberal and militant spokesperson as Palmer possessed an ante-bellum Southern attitude to womanhood in general. 61 In the view of the Suffragists, The Board of Lady Managers owed their existence to Susan B. Anthony and her co-workers since they appealed to Congress and demanded that women have a place within the 59 Aline Saarinen, The Proud Processors (New York: Random House, 1858), Saarinen, Jeanne Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1981),

36 exposition. 62 Although the Suffragists wanted a place designated within the fair for women s achievements in society, they did not want a separate board of Lady Managers. They preferred to be part of a sole national board. The Suffragists wanted the exposition to recognize Queen Isabella of Spain as a co-discover of America, and their own association known as the Isabella Association, but it eventually disintegrated. 63 The Suffragists were not the only women who objected to Palmer s position; many found it offensive that Black women were not invited to join the Board of Lady Managers. For many Blacks, a popular choice was Fannie Barrier Williams (illus. 1.27). Williams possessed several similarities to Bertha Palmer. She was a reformer, a club woman, and a civic leader. In fact, Barrier Williams belonged to many of the same social clubs as Palmer and due to her upbringing and class was also socially well-connected. It is unclear as to why Black women were not accepted into the Board of Lady Managers and few scholars have delved into this question. Yet, it is interesting to note this fact since there was an exhibit regarding the status of African women inside the Woman s Building. What is clear is that although Bertha Palmer was the popular choice for president of the Board of Lady Managers, she was not the only choice. Conclusion As evidenced, the accomplishment of the Woman s Building at the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition resulted from the lessons learned at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. Unlike the Centennial Exposition which focused on showcasing American Pride, the Woman s Building at the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition paid tribute to women s advancement in society. The Suffrage Movement challenged old ways of thinking about 62 Weimann, Weimann,

37 women s position in society. Instead of solely being homemakers, women now had access to money, travel, social networking, and education. These were all new and important components that played a role in the achievement of and success of the Woman s Building at the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition. Arguably the most resonating accomplishment of this building is that it was the masterpiece of influential and talented women. While the building itself was the work of many women, Bertha Palmer was the qualified leader. She represented the New Woman. She possessed the education and had access to the money and the social networks needed for the position of Chair. In addition, her personal characteristics of inquisitiveness, aesthetic sensibility, and sense of social justice further served to equip her with the skill for this important role. Indeed, there were other possible candidates for her position, but as evidenced, it would be difficult to imagine anyone else whose qualities coincided with the needs of the time. 31

38 Chapter 2: Women of the Woman s Building By the time the Chicago World s Columbian Exposition began, it was considered acceptable for women to be involved with the arts. In fact, by 1860, art-making was an appropriate career for women as it reflected Victorian ideology of women s roles in the home as guardians of domestic tranquility. 64 Thus through decoration and working in careers such as interior design, painting, print making, and exhibition design women were an influence in civilizing society. With the goal of influencing society to acknowledge women s role in the contemporary world, the Woman s Building was funded, built, and controlled by women. Although Bertha Palmer may be considered the catalyst behind the creation of Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition, she was not the only woman who contributed to it. The two women who were responsible for decorating the Woman s Building were Sara Tyson Hallowell ( ) and Candace Wheeler ( ). Both of these women were professionals in their fields. Hallowell was a curator, exhibition designer, art advisor, and agent; and Wheeler was an interior designer. These two women were responsible for the interior layout of the Woman s Building. In their public capacity, both women acted as role models for women interested in careers in the arts. Hallowell (illus. 2.1) was the first American woman to organize and manage large and significant art exhibitions. 65 Little is known about her early life and career other than that she came from a respectable Quaker family from Philadelphia. Her first documented work was for the Chicago Interstate Exposition of For the 1873 Exposition she started by doing modest 64 Kirsten M. Jensen, Her Sex Was an Insurable Objection: Sara Tyson Hallowell and the Art Institute of Chicago (Southern Connecticut State University, 2000), Rima Lumin Schultz and Adele Hast, Women Building Chicago (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001),

39 jobs, but was quickly promoted to assistant clerk of the Exposition of 1879 and then in 1880 she became clerk of the entire art committee for this exposition. 66 Thus from , Hallowell was responsible for organizing the art shows at these Interstate Expositions. 67 In this role, Hallowell focused on showing the works of new and young American artists, and also presented works of both European and American artists who had won prizes at the Paris Salon. Montague Marks, a New York critic for Art Amateur, greatly praised Hallowell for her work at these exhibitions: due to the personal efforts of that extremely intelligent and energetic lady, Chicago this year has anticipated New York, Boston and Philadelphia in exhibiting the important American pictures from the last [Paris] Salon. Bravo Chicago! And particularly bravo, Miss Sara Hallowell. 68 Her art exhibition at the 1890 Interstate Exposition featured works by French Impressionists. She used these exhibitions to establish relationships with artists, collectors, dealers, and museum professionals across the country and internationally. Due to her curatorial experiences, strong knowledge of contemporary art, and many professional connections, Hallowell applied for the position of Director of the Fine Arts Building of the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition. Her numerous endorsements for the job included letters of petition from nearly sixty artists including William Chester French, Augustus Saint- Gaudens, William Merrit Chase, and John Singer Sargent. Bertha Palmer also supported Hallowell for the position and even the New York Times commented that Hallowell was the best candidate for the position: Hallowell is most favorably spoken of for the position [of Director of 66 Schultz and Hast, The last Inter-State exhibition was in 1890 due to the construction of the present Art Institute of Chicago. 68 Weimann,

40 Fine Arts]. She has proven her wide knowledge of art and executive ability by making the Interstate exhibit second to none in the country. 69 Even Montague Marks commented: Certainly, she has done more for your millionaires who have been buying costly old masters and exhibiting them at the Art Institute. Furthermore, she is a good judge of modern paintings, has remarkable executive ability, and is on the most friendly terms with artists at home and abroad. 70 However, despite Hallowell s many qualities, she was not appointed Director. Instead, the title went to Halsey C. Ives, (illus. 2.2) who had then been the director of what is now the Saint Louis Museum of Art. It truly appeared as written in the October 24, 1890 edition of the New York Times, that Hallowell possessed many qualifications [but] her sex was an insuperable objection. Interestingly, Hallowell was later offered a position as the Assistant Chief of the Art Department in 1891; however, since they were reluctant to pay her the three thousand dollars she required, Hallowell refused the position. 71 Although, unsuccessful after waging a valiant effort to become the Director, Hallowell did not let that deter her from her own pursuits. She continued to assist her friends and patrons in their development of their own art collections. Hallowell went on to work for the Palmers. It was through Hallowell that the Palmers met and collected works of art by Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley. She worked as a liaison between Bertha Palmer, Mary Cassatt, and Mary MacMonnies. In addition to her responsibilities to the Woman s Building, Hallowell curated an exhibition of European Art from American collections in the Fine Arts Building. Through this exhibition, Hallowell sought to prove that American collectors were as sophisticated as their European counterparts. 69 Weimann, Weimann, Lunin and Hast,

41 Hallowell acted as a correspondent for Mrs. Palmer for the Woman s Building. With her connections, both in the United States and Europe, Hallowell worked to find good women artists to exhibit work in it. She sought out both Mary Cassatt and Mary Fairchild MacMonnies to create murals for the Building. Hallowell knew of their work in Europe through her friendship with the well known art dealer and critic, Paul Durand-Ruel, who had worked with both artists. Hallowell also personally knew both women through her own career as a curator, art critic, and art agent. She had introduced the artists to Palmer and encouraged her to commission works from both of them. Hallowell recognized their talents, but she also knew that their reputations as contemporary artists would draw the attention of audiences around the world. She knew that despite the sheltered, middle-class backgrounds of both women, they had still established fulfilling careers for themselves. Hallowell fully recognized that all of these elements were needed for the success of the Woman s Building. She was keenly aware that by featuring such well-known American women artists, the Woman s Building would also bring attention to lesser-known female artists as well. This was also a chance to showcase decorative as well as fine arts, thus to potentially elevate respect for the skills of women artists and artisans through their connection with this building. Mrs. Candace Wheeler ( ) (illus. 2.3), was a native from New York whose specialty was interior design. Like Hallowell, Wheeler was one of the first women to work in a male-dominated field. Prior to the World s Columbian Exposition, she had worked with Louis Comfort Tiffany ( ) 72 and was his co-founder of the Louis C. Tiffany Company, Associated Artists Group. She was recognized as the textile specialist. Along with Tiffany and other members of the Associated Arts Group, Wheeler designed the homes of such people as 72 Tiffany was active in the decorative arts and is best known for his work in stained-glass. Tiffany s father, Charles Lewis Tiffany was the famed jewelry designer and founder of the famous jewelry line, Tiffany and Co. 35

42 Mark Twain and the President of the United States, Chester Arthur. 73 In addition, she is recognized for decorating the Veteran s Room of the Seventh Regiment Armory in New York, the Madison Square Theater, and the Union League Club. 74 Upon leaving Tiffany to begin her own interior design business, Wheeler took with her the name of Associated Artists Group and her original textile and embroidery designs borrowed by Tiffany. Wheeler, like her fellow Lady Manager, Bertha Palmer, was a reformist who believed in the advancement of women. In 1877, she founded the Society of Decorative Art (SDA) after she had been inspired by an exhibit hosted by the Royal School of Art Needlework in London. The objective of this organization was to employ needy women and sell their handiwork. The SDA implemented the same desires. Not only did it function to exhibit and sell the work of women artists, it also trained women in various craft techniques such as print and wallpaper making. In addition to founding the Society of Decorative Art, in 1878, Wheeler helped found the New York Exchange for Woman s Work. This society is still in existence today. This organization allowed women to earn money through selling any product that was manufactured through the home. In June of 1892, Wheeler was approached by the New York Board of Lady Managers and named Director of their Bureau of Applied Arts. Her assignment with the New York Bureau and with the Board of Lady Managers in general was to assemble an exhibit of women s work from New York to be showcased at the exhibition. In addition to this, Wheeler was responsible for decorating the library of the Woman s Building. Furthermore, Mrs. Palmer worked to obtain an official sanction for Wheeler s appointment as Superintendent of Interior Works of the Woman s 73 Weimann,

43 Building. However, like Hallowell, Wheeler would never receive this title or a contract for her services due to miscommunication amongst members of the National Board. Yet, Wheeler s name aided by drawing attention to the Woman s Building because people around the world knew of her company, Associated Artists Group. In addition, the world was well acquainted with her famous business partner, Louis C. Tiffany. Here was yet another example of a female artist who used her artistic talent and created a career and an industry of her own. Not only would her own talent be displayed at World s Columbian Exposition, but she could inspire visitors to observe the talents of all women. Mary Cassatt ( ) (illus. 2.4) was an American born artist who became an expatriate and lived in France. She studied Impressionist painting and was a pupil of Edgar Degas ( ). Like her fellow counterparts of the Woman s Building, she too was unique in that she took up painting as a career, a predominantly male profession. Mary Stevenson Cassatt was born in Pennsylvania. She was the daughter of an affluent banker. As a child, Mary lived with her family in France and Germany until they returned to the United States in In 1861, she enrolled at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts where she took up painting and drawing. In 1877, Cassatt was invited by Degas to exhibit her paintings with her fellow Impressionists. She continued to showcase her work in the Impressionist Salons until the last show in Cassatt later formed a relationship with the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. She held her first solo-exhibition in his gallery in 1893, during the time of the World s Columbine Exposition. While, Cassatt made a name for herself in Europe particularly after the Luxembourg Exhibition, Cassatt had not yet made a name for herself in the United States until she exhibited her mural in the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition. 37

44 For the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition, Cassatt was invited by Bertha Palmer through the urging of Sarah Hallowell to create a mural for the Great Hall of the Woman s Building depicting women s advancement in society. Cassatt accepted in part because she admired Mrs. Palmer s determination that women should be someone and not something. 75 Her mural simply titled, the Modern Woman (Illus. 2.5), is no longer in existence. Yet it depicted woman s progress and achievement in society. As revealed in the reproduction, the original mural depicted a group of contemporary, nineteenth century women, of various ages, picking apples in a forest. The action of apple picking symbolizes women attaining the fruits of knowledge and science. 76 Thus the allegory is that women have progressed in life through knowledge. Yet, it is important to note that knowledge is not only gleaned as suggested by the woman in the right foreground who is picking apples from the tree; but also, knowledge is gained through instruction as revealed by the center woman on the ladder handing an apple to the young girl below her. Thus, Cassatt illustrated women s active involvement in education. As portrayed in her mural, women were now students and educators, the latter an occupation that at one time was solely engaged in by men. It is also important to note that Cassatt depicted the women gathering the fruits of knowledge out of doors. This further serves to illustrate that modern women are no longer solely keepers of the home. The action of apple picking exemplifies that women were now indeed productive members of industry and society. Upon further reflection, Modern Woman portrayed a curious scene. Within the calm and idyllic forest setting, Cassatt rendered only women. She deliberately excluded showcasing men within this work. As a result, Cassatt was able to create a sense of community and inclusiveness based on gender. This community is not limited to age since the mural showcased the social 75 Weimann, Weimann,

45 interaction of both young girls and mature women. This sense of community is further evident by the women shown working in collaboration with one another as they are clustered in groups performing the different divisions of labor in apple picking. Therefore, the painting itself was a metaphor for how many nineteenth century women viewed achievement, progress, and change. They viewed progress as the result of social collaboration and education leading to change. Perhaps a key element of Modern Woman is that the women depicted possessed ambition to be the best that they could be, which strongly contrasts to its sister mural Primitive Woman, which will be further discussed. Therefore, Modern Woman was emblematic of the Woman s Building in regards to both the way in which it was built and in what the Building stood for: community, progress, change, and achievement. Clearly, the mural was used to draw attention to the Woman s Building itself. However, Cassatt s mural was just one tool used to demonstrate the progress of women in the arts. Although, she was not well known in the United States, Cassatt had made a name for herself in Europe. Due to her style of painting, she was recognized as an Impressionist and had shown much of her work at their salons. As Cassatt s own mother stated, her daughter was intent on fame and money After all, a woman who is not married is lucky if she has a decided love for work of any kind and the more absorbing the better. 77 Cassatt had done just that, achieving fame through her art. While Cassatt s paintings were Impressionistic in style, her work was unique and different from her Impressionist peers, in that it depicted women in their own private, domestic settings, often caring for children. Many women universally could relate to these scenes. In addition to her success of making a career for herself, Cassatt was also acquainted with wealthy and recognizable names including her own mentor, Edgar Degas. She 77 Ibid. 39

46 was also friends with none other than, Sarah Hallowell, the correspondent for Mrs. Bertha Palmer and the great art critic and art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. As a result, in addition to her mural, Cassatt the artist drew visitors into the Woman s Building. Mary Fairchild MacMonnies (Illus. 2.6) was another female painter who was invited to display her art in the entry hall of the Woman s Building. Her mural, Primitive Woman (Illus. 2.7) depicted the duties of women before the acceptance of the educated woman and was therefore the complement to Cassatt s Modern Woman. Primitive Woman showcased woman fulfilling her womanly duties at home. In this mural, Primitive Woman crushed grapes, prepared meals, bathed children, drew water, tended men, scattered grain, and plowed the field. Thus, MacMonnies illustrated Primitive Woman as the bearer of burden, the toilers of the earth, and the servants of man. 78 More importantly, Primitive Woman portrayed woman content with the tasks of family life, the very antithesis of Cassatt s Modern Woman. Primitive Woman as revealed by the photographic reproduction portrayed an atypical scene. Like Modern Woman, this mural also depicted an idyllic scene that harkened to a Classical past. The figures in this scene were depicted set against a tranquil, but timeless forest setting. In addition, to the timelessness of the forest, the figures were shown wearing timeless clothing. While the mural did not indicate any specific time or place in history, it suggested what society looked like when women s activities centered on home and family rather than education and society at large. Primitive Woman illustrated women s duties in an agrarian society in which a primary requirement was survival. While the tasks portrayed in this mural may seem trivial and redundant, they are important elements of survival: eating, drinking, planting, sowing, gathering, etc... This mural depicted woman contently tending to men and caring for children. While these 78 Weimann,

47 images may have appeared demeaning to the modern, educated woman of the nineteenth century; these images of woman as caregiver were images of survival. Woman married and reproduced so society could survive and evolve. Thus, Primitive Woman not only portrayed woman without education, it also illustrated society without progress, a society whose only goal is survival. This lack of advancement and progress is evident in the way each task is performed. Unlike Modern Woman in which the women were shown picking apples as a cooperative group, in Primitive Woman, the tasks of each woman are carried out individually. This lack of collaboration or community further underscores the duties being performed are solely for survival. In a survival based society, there is no emphasis on education or collaboration for social advancement. As a result, society remains stagnant. MacMonnies s depiction of societal stagnation sharply contrasted with the goals of the Woman s Building as well as the Exposition itself as both desired to showcase social progress. While her mural functioned partly as a means of attracting attention to the Woman s Building and providing a commentary to woman s role in society, so too was MacMonnies own reputation a boon to the Woman s Building. Like Cassatt, MacMonnies possessed many desirable qualities that made her stand out not only as a woman, but as an artist as well. MacMonnies, like Cassatt, was an American expatriot to France. MacMonnies was born in New Haven, Connecticut. She began her artistic studies at the St. Louis Academy of Fine Arts and later studied at the Académie Julian in Paris. She had been a student of the great mural painter, Puvis de Chavannes ( ). 79 In addition, she was the wife of the renowned sculptor, Frederic MacMonnies ( ), who 79 De Chavannes was the president and co-founder of the Sociétè National des Beaux-Arts in Although, Chavannes is seen as a symbolist, he studied under the Romanticists. One of his mentors was Eugène Delacroix. He is best known for his mural paintings. Several of his most well known murals can be found inside the Hôtel de Ville in Paris, at the Sorbonne, at the Paris Panthéon, at Poitiers, and inside the Boston Public Library, in Boston, Massachusetts. 41

48 created the fountain of honor for the World s Columbian Exposition. 80 Not only was she a painter, but she was a successful one as well. She made a name for herself through her art, piquing curiosity and further drawing attention to the Woman s Building. Truly Cassatt and MacMonnies helped shape and promote the mission of the Woman s Building and the other artists within it. They also had their own sets of hardships. Perhaps the most problematic aspect of their involvement in the Woman s Building was the communication that occurred between Bertha Palmer and the two women. Remembering that at this time in history the telephone had not been invented, general correspondences proved to be timeconsuming and difficult. One of the difficulties was that the artists did not receive their contracts until July, 1892, with terms that both artists had difficulty accepting. The contract stipulated that the murals needed to be complete by October This deadline was very hard to accept considering that both Cassatt and MacMonnies had received their contracts only months before. With a little urging from Miss Hallowell, Mrs. Palmer was able to buy more time for both. 81 Thus, February 1893 was the deadline for both women to finish. Another problem was that although both women would be paid for their services, each artist was responsible for paying all fees for freight and installation of the murals. Although, both artists received payment for their work, their fees were low. However, Mrs. Palmer stated that patriotism and the enhancement of reputation should be as good as money. 82 It should be stated that in general, low fees were the 80 Like his wife, MacMonnies was an American ex-patriot to France. He was born in Brooklyn Heights, New York. His mother was related to the famous sculptor, Benjamin West. In 1880 he was hired by the sculptor, Augustus Saint-Gaudens. MacMonnies studied at the National Academy of Design and at the Art Students League. Later in 1884, he went to study sculpture at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. In 1890, he opened his own studio along the banks of the Seine River in Paris. 81 Weimann, Weimann,

49 rule. In fact, the American artists by and large were being paid less than the two muralists who lived in France. 83 An additional problem that the artists faced was with the murals themselves. Each artist had been trained differently and painted her mural using distinctive techniques. MacMonnies had an advantage. Having been a pupil of the mural painter, Puvis de Chavannes, she understood the proportions that the mural called for to make an impression on the viewer. Cassatt did not have this advantage and she states in a letter she wrote to Bertha Palmer: My figures are rather under life size although they seem as large as life. I could not manage modern women in modern dress eight or nine feet high. 84 The scale of figures depicted in Cassatt s mural did prove to be a problem when it was hung; her women appeared to be too small, making the painting appear clustered and muddled, which Cassatt had brought to Palmer s attention. Cassatt mentioned in an October 1982 letter that the thing that bothered her from the beginning was: the height at which the pictures would be hung. 85 Cassatt refers to the experience of Paul Baudy ( ) whose work had been hung quite out of sight at the Grand Opera. 86 Cassatt continues in her letter: When the work reaches Chicago, when it is dragged up 48 feet and you will have to stretch your neck to get sight of it at all, whether you will like it then, is another question...the architects [are] evidently of [the] opinion [that painting is no longer needed]. Painting was never intended to be put out of sight. 87 To further antagonize feelings, Cassatt s mentor, Degas was of the same mindset and he was already angry with her for accepting this proposition when there had been no collaboration 83 Weimann, Weimann, Ibid. 86 Ibid. 87 Weimann

50 between the painters and the architects, as indicated in a letter that Camille Pissarro wrote to his son: Speaking of Miss Cassatt s decoration. I wish you could have heard the conversation I had with Degas I am wholly of his opinion; for him [decoration] is an ornament that should be made with a view of its place in the ensemble, it requires the collaboration of architect and painter. The decorative picture is an absurdity, a picture complete in itself is not a decoration 88 MacMonnies mural very much contrasted with Cassatt s. Having been a pupil of de Chavannes, she had a better execution of her mural. MacMonnies made many preliminary sketchings before executing her final product. She had gone to the Forest of Fontainebleau and made a number of studies for the foreground, such as weeds and grass 89 In addition, each figure was taken from a different nude model. 90 In comparison to Cassatt s mural, MacMonnies overall composition was harmonious. As described by Bertha Palmer in one of her correspondences to MacMonnies: I was very much pleased with the photograph which you so kindly sent. It carries quite a suggestion of Puvis In fact, your own small picture that I saw, representing a garden, was simply lovely in its delicate greys, greens and softened reds 91 However, the one flaw Palmer perceived was that MacMonnies had done her figures in the nude. Palmer thought this unnecessary and indicated it in a letter to MacMonnies: The only point about which I would make a suggestion would be in the draperies. You know we have an infinite number of people taking the standpoint of the British Matron and that art of any kind is so new to our country West of the 88 Weimann, Weimann, Ibid. 91 Weimann,

51 Mississippi river that even semi-nudity attracts more comment than it would in an art center like Paris. 92 In the end, MacMonnies complied with Palmer s request to clothe her figures, but only after a heated debate. In a letter that she wrote, MacMonnies attempted to educate Palmer of her situation. MacMonnies writes: A decoration, like a tapestry, should be a superior sort of wallpaper, which gives first and above all a charming and agreeable effect as a whole, but does not strike the eye or disturb the attention by any vigorous or salient spots. I think you will scarcely see my semi-nude women (I mean be aware of them) at all, if the work is successful as a decoration. 93 MacMonnies added: I don t know how much of the nude has been used by the men in their decorations-paintings-?-but I know that in their sculpture the whole exhibition is full of it. Well, are we going to recoil and once more bear the reproach of timidity and feebleness? A figure draped from head to foot may easily be made more immodest than one entirely nude. As stated in this communication, MacMonnies attempted to point out the hypocrisies that women faced in artistic training in attempting to gain acceptance of their art. She also eloquently examined American Philistinism. Still, MacMonnies was wise enough to realize that it was not Palmer who objected to her artistic style, but rather, a naïve American public, who was only just introduced to contemporary art. In the end, MacMonnies women were painted fully clothed and as stated by Jeanne Weimann: Certainly the picture contained nothing that would alarm the most timid of British Matron. 92 Weimann, Weimann,

52 For the Exposition both murals were hung high in the Hall of Honor in the Woman s Building. The murals indeed depicted the progress of women. These two murals like the Building itself came to be highly revered. According to Weimann, theses two paintings, like the building reflected what Mrs. Palmer, aflame with a passionate love of Beauty, 94 was pleased to call The inspiration of women s genius. 95 These murals symbolized women s progress, but they were also used as a means of advertising the Woman s Building. All of the aforementioned women together possessed the means to create this building dedicated to women s progress. They all possessed wealth, thus allowing them to pursue their dreams. More importantly, these women came from educated backgrounds. They believed that women should be somebody, not something and for that to happen a woman needed an education and proper training. These women who created the building proved this to be true since each and every one of them except for Mrs. Palmer possessed careers of their own in the arts. Thus, it was not just the objects found within the building that were used to advertise and demonstrate women s advancement in society and the arts, but the women who built it were also used as a means of advertising and elevating the importance of the Woman s Building. Conclusion: Palmer, Hallowell, Wheeler, Cassatt, and MacMonnies were examples of the essential roles needed for the advancement of women s art. Palmer was a catalyst. She had the money, connections, education, appreciation, and drive, but no one woman could do it all. As explained, there were sufficient women with the abilities to fill all the roles. This synthesis allowed them to 94 Weimann, Ibid. 46

53 use each other s strengths to accomplish the same goal. As discussed, Hallowell was a business woman in the world of art. She was a curator and administrator and possessed the business connections needed for support of the Woman s Building. In addition, with Hallowell s expertise as a curator, it was evident that the various exhibits and displays within the Woman s Building were high quality. Wheeler was an interior designer, an organizer (SDA), and a business woman. Both Cassatt and MacMonnies were trained artists with drive, their own careers, and connections to other well-known artists. Each woman showcased initiative and understood the need for networking and group cooperation in order to achieve the same goal. The networks they formed created the pathways which led to opportunities which led to a specific market which led to recognition that followed. In addition to these women, it is important to recognize the involvement of the many politically active international women. 96 With their help, the Woman s Building became a government sanctioned building at the international level. The greatest achievement of this building is that it was controlled by women, many with strong names and titles stirring curiosity among visitors to the building, thus aiding in the appreciation and recognition of lesser known artists. 96 Female leaders from around the world including the Queen of England, Queen Margherita of Italy, the Empress of Japan, and the Empress of Russia. Other countries involved with the Woman s Building include: Germany, Ireland, Spain, Turkey, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, and several regions of Central South America. 47

54 Chapter 3: Model Museum The Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition was the first, though temporary, museum dedicated to women in the arts. Since its extinction, there continues to be a need for women s museums such as the National Museum of Women in the Arts (NMWA) in Washington D.C., United States. The NMWA continues the legacy of the Woman s Building as separate, but equal museum dedicated to women artists. This legacy includes a permanent temple-like museum, community outreach, education, and global awareness and connectedness. As a separate, but equal museum, it is guaranteed that women artists will be honored and never again be forgotten. History: The National Museum of Women in the Arts is the only museum in the entire world that solely recognizes the artistic works of female artists from around the world. This museum originated from the private collection of Wilhelmina Cole Holladay and Wallace F. Holladay (illus. 3.1). The Holladays began collecting women s art in the 1970s in response to the underrepresentation of women in the arts. As revealed in her memoir, A Museum of Their Own: National Museum of Women in the Art, Mrs. Holladay recalls first being aware of the underrepresentation of women in art when she and her husband first admired some paintings by Clara Peeters at Vienna s Kunsthistories and at the Museo de Prado in Madrid in the 1970s. Holladay s first question was: If Peeters were sufficiently important to hang in two of the world s great museums, how was it that we did not know about her? 97 Upon consulting various 97 Wilhelmina Cole Holladay, A Museum of Their Own: National Museum of Women in the Arts (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 2008),

55 art history reference books, including H.W. Janson s History of Art, 98 she soon discovered there was no information on Clara Peeters or any other woman artist. Holladay obtained a small amount of information from the National Gallery of Art. Still, Holladay never forgot this experience and when she and her husband started to collect art for their personal pleasure, they chose to: build a collection within boundaries that had been ignored by the notable collectors of the past, by the chic and trendy gallery-goers of the present, and by the critics and scholars of the history of art, the arbiters of intellectual taste for several generations. 99 After nearly twenty years of collecting, the Holladays turned their attention towards opening a museum for the public dedicated to women in the arts. The NMWA (illus. 3.2) opened on April 7, 1987 with its inaugural exhibition, American Women Artists: Today, the museum hosts a permanent collection of more than 3,000 works of art by women artists between the 16 th century and today. 100 Unlike the Woman s Building of the World s Columbian Exposition, which was built as a temporary exhibition hall, the NMWA was built as a permanent setting to house and exhibit women s art. As a permanent structure, the presence of the NMWA will not become extinct. While, the Woman s Building introduced the world to women s achievement in art and society, it is important to recall that the main agenda was to demonstrate America as a progressive power equal to Europe through the representation of women at the fair. Thus, the Woman s Building was only temporary. It met the needs for the sole purpose of the World s Columbian Exposition, 98 Abrams Publishing Company started including women artists into Janson s History of Art in Wilhelmina Cole Holladay, A Museum of Their Own: National Museum of Women in the Arts (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 2008), National Museum of Women in the Arts. The Permanent Collection, 49

56 nothing more. Still, it laid the ground work for the makings of a permanent woman s museum when the time was right. As a permanent museum, the NMWA continues the work of the Woman s Building, but is able to go further as it works to correct art history s wrongs and continues to spread awareness of women s impact in art and society so that they will never again be overlooked. The Museum as the Permanent Temple to Women To further elevate its strength and permanence, the NMWA is strategically housed within the former National Masonic Temple. The former temple s architecture certainly possessed the many desires of museum buildings. It was constructed in 1907 and it was built to the highest standards of solidity, with thick masonry walls that were absolutely fireproof. 101 Even more impressive, the building rises 110 feet from the sidewalk... with an auditorium on the first floor and the upper floor outfitted with large, gallery-like rooms dedicated to the diverse needs of a traditional fraternal order. Its classic facades enclosed seventy thousand square feet of space, ample room for museum galleries, offices, and all the associated facilities. 102 Indeed, it seems natural and perfect that the former temple be transformed into a museum as even the architecture reflects protection and transcending permanence. While, the architecture certainly adds to the awe of the museum, the most striking element is that the museum is housed within a temple. Temples both religious and fraternal represent many things. Temples are places of worship and community. They are spiritual places. 101 Wilhelmina Cole Holladay, A Museum of Their Own: National Museum of Women in the Arts (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 2008), Holladay, 62 50

57 They provide sanctuary and venues of reflection. Art museums more than any other type of museum hold a greater status as temples 103 or places of ritual. This is because the objects within continue to retain their aura or are invested with an aura they may not have previously had. 104 The NMWA is indeed a temple as it canonizes and honors women artists. The NMWA is a sanctuary for women artists as stated in the museum mission statement: The National Museum of Women in the Arts brings recognition to the achievements of women artists of all periods and nationalities by exhibiting, preserving, acquiring, and researching art by women and by teaching the public about their accomplishments. 105 As previously mentioned, the museum achieves its temple like acclaim by the fact that it hosts a permanent collection of more than 3,000 works of art from the 16 th century to the present. In addition, the museum currently holds works of more than 800 artists. 106 These works of art are the relics, the visual legacy, of female artists that the museum ensures are properly cared for, revered, and not forgotten. Aside from collecting art of women artists, the NMWA, dedicates itself to research. The library and research center holds more than 18,500 volumes of books and exhibition catalogues. 107 It also possesses files of more than 18,000 women artists. 108 Through its continuous research the NMWA works to educate the public about the lives and the contributions that women artists have made to society. As a result of research, the 103 Steven Conn, Museum and American Intellectual Life, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), Ibid. 105 National Museum of Women in the Arts. History of NMWA, asp 106 Ibid. 107 National Museum for Women in the Arts, History of NMWA, Ibid. 51

58 museum actively makes sure that women artists are never again omitted from the canon of art history. As evidenced, through the preservation of the permanent collection, active continuous collecting, and research, the NMWA like the Columbian Exposition s Woman s Building is a sanctuary for women artists. While the Woman s Building provided the stepping stones of the NMWA, the NMWA exceeds the former s mission through the creation of a permanent museum. This permanence is evident in the location of the museum within a former temple giving the museum an elevated status. The fact that the NMWA is housed within a former temple provides added value to its mission something that the former Woman s Building could not do. Therefore, not only is the museum a separate, but equal exhibition space for women artists, but it is also a temple, a sanctuary, and a home where the legacy of women and their art can be honored and revered. A Community of Unique Endeavors The museum like the temple before it is also a community organization. Some of the goals of freemasonry include emphasizing personal study, self-improvement, and social betterment via individual involvement and philanthropy. 109 Ironically, the goals of the male secret society, particularly social betterment, also pertain to the museum that champions art by women and the sisterhood. The main goal of the museum like that of the Woman s Building of 1893 is to showcase the talent of woman artists and illustrate their contribution to society and the art history cannon. Similar to the Woman s Building, the NMWA has both national and international committees that work to raise money, spread awareness, and support the museum in general. The NMWA 109 Masonic Service Association of North America, Website, 52

59 has formed committees in twenty-nine states 110 and in eight foreign countries. 111 Unlike the former Woman s Building, these committees have also helped to create new initiatives to spread awareness. For instance, the Texas Committee developed the idea of commissioning the United States Postal Service (USPS) to reproduce images from the NMWA collection. The first image to be reproduced as a 1994 Christmas stamp was of Elizabetta Sirani s Virgin and Child (Illus. 3.3). 112 In addition, to the Sirani, the USPS has also reproduced two floral images, Dissertation in Insect Generations (illus. 3.4) and Metamorphosis in Surinam (1719) (Illus. 3.5), by the seventeenth-century naturalist painter Maria Sibylla Merian. 113 This initiative is unique in that it not only helps promote the museum s name, but, it also introduces to mainstream society art created by women outside of the museum setting. Similarly, the Arkansas Committee helped to inspire the museum s core mission of education. The Arkansas committee headed by Helen Walton, wife of the successful retail businessman, Sam Walton, launched the Arts Arkansas Committee in the name of the NMWA that provides public-school children with art materials. Through this program, many Arkansas school children have been introduced to art and creative activity. Programs such as this one have helped connect the museum with schools of which NMWA has had greater direct impact on in- 110 Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Greater Kansas city, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, 111 Canada (Vancouver), Czech Republic (Prague), India (Delhi), Ireland (Dublin), France (Paris), Italy (Florence and Milan), Spain (Madrid), United Kingdom (London). 112 Holladay, Holladay, 82 53

60 the-schools education than many other museums, even larger and better established ones, 114 further spreading awareness and correcting former mistakes. As previously mentioned, the NMWA has several international committees as well. These foreign committees like the foreign committees of the World s Columbian Exposition help to spread the name and the mission of the NMWA. Through their involvement and financial support, these committees re-emphasize the on-going global commitment of awareness of women s impact in the arts and society. The most important initiative of the foreign committees is their sponsorship of many of the exhibitions. Through the involvement of the international committees, the museum is able to continue its mission at an international level thus indicating that the achievements of the NMWA will never be forgotten. Like the State Committees, the international committees also serve as sources of inspiration for many of the exhibitions, again reflecting the ongoing involvement and ensuring the permanence of the NMWA. As portrayed, the NMWA functions as a permanent separate, but equal museum dedicated to women artists. As such, the museum is a sanctuary and temple for women so that they will never be forgotten again. The legacy of the museum was inspired by the Woman s Building of the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition. The Woman s Building called for global awareness of women s involvement in the arts, but the building was temporary as was the Columbian Exposition itself. Still, it laid the foundations for the NMWA. As a permanent museum, the NMWA is able to continue the mission of the Woman s Building. 114 Holladay, 62 54

61 Conclusion The impressive planning committees of high profile women and men, the splendor for which the White City is remembered, and the emergence of women on the national and international landscape of art and industry are all hallmarks of the 1893 Chicago World s Columbian Exposition; which offered America an opportunity to showcase its cultural, intellectual, and scientific progress to the world. For the citizens of Chicago especially, the exposition provided the means to demonstrate that their city was in reality an advanced metropolis at a time when many deemed it to be second rate. To aid in achieving this goal, many forward-thinking women throughout the United States demanded that the exposition include a separate exhibition space for women to showcase their talents in art and industry. They argued that the inclusion of a woman s building would show the city s progressiveness and bring further honor to Chicago. Their demands were successfully met by an act of the United States Congress and signed into law President Harrison. Arguably, the success of the 1893 Woman s Building resulted from the lessons learned from the Woman s Pavilion at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. Unlike the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in which the Woman s Pavilion was built and controlled by men, the Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition was built by and controlled by women, through its Board of Lady Managers, headed by Bertha Palmer. As I have closely examined, due to the embarrassment and injustice that the 1876 Woman s Pavilion inflicted on American women, specific strategies were used to guard against such grievances. Such strategies included the involvement of socially and artistically prominent women. Bertha Palmer was the President of the Board of Lady Managers and the driving force of the Woman s Building as she possessed the wealth, the drive, and the connections. She petitioned 55

62 the involvement of other countries in order to make the Woman s Building truly international and spread global awareness. However, Palmer could not have made the building a success without the help of other established career women. The internationally-known exhibition organizer, Sara Hallowell worked to obtain artists for the building. It was she who persuaded the distinguished and honorary artists, Mary Cassatt and Mary MacMonnies to paint a set of murals for the Building s Great Hall. Hallowell understood that the involvement of these two wellknown women would pique public interest and draw visitors to the Building. In addition to Hallowell, the distinguished interior designer and business partner of Louis Tiffany, Candace Wheeler decorated it. Finally, the artists Mary Cassatt and Mary MacMonnies painted the murals for the Great Hall. Both women were well known and thus were synonymous with the Women s Building and public interest. While, the individual talents of these career women aided in the creation of the Woman s Building, they were also tools in the success of the Building itself. Each of these women possessed successful careers in the public eye and therefore swayed public interest to the building and the exhibits within. The 1893 Woman s Building visibly embodied women s advancement. However, the Woman s Building like the Exposition itself was only temporary. The Woman s Building simply met the needs for the Columbian Exposition, but nothing more. Yet, it demonstrated an unmet need. Since its extinction, there remained a need for woman only museums. Today, the NMWA continues the legacy of the Woman s Building as a separate, but equal museum for women in the arts. As such, the museum is a temple and a sanctuary for women artists. Through its ongoing exhibitions, outreach programs, and community involvement, the NMWA continues to spread awareness and work to correct injustices to women in the arts. As a nationally recognized 56

63 museum, there is a definite sense of permanency so that never again will women artists be neglected. Truly, the 1893 Woman s Building and the NMWA have aided in the advancement of women artists. While, the Woman s Building was a temporary museum, it laid the foundation for the NMWA, and it certainly served a specific purpose. It raised public awareness regarding women s issues in modern society of the time, while at the same time representing America s advancement and proving Chicago a modern and advanced metropolis. Today, the NMWA continues the original work of the Woman s Building. As a permanently endowed museum, the NMWA fulfills the ongoing needs of women artists in contemporary culture. 57

64 Bibliography Books Appelbaum, Stanley. The Chicago World s Fair of New York: Dover Publications, Badger, Reid. The Great American Fair. Chicago: Nelson Hall, Banks, Charles Eugene. The Artistic Guide to Chicago and the World s Columbian Exposition. R.S. Peale Co., Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Book of the Fair. New York: Bounty Books, Barter, Judith A., Kimberly Rhodes, and Seth A. Thayer. American Arts at the Art Institute of Chicago. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago, Barter, Judith. Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago, Bolotin, Norman and Christine Lang. The World s Columbian Exposition. Washington D.C.: Preservation Press, Burg, David. Chicago s White City of Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, Chicago Daily News. History of the World s Fair. Chicago: Chicago Daily News Co., Clark, T.J. The Painting of Modern Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Columbian Exposition Album. Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Company, Conn, Steven. Museums and American Intellectual Life, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Cordato, M. F. Representing the Expansion of the Woman s Sphere: Women s Work and Culture at the World s Fairs of 1876, 1893, and Ph.D. diss., New York University, De Wit, Wim. The Book of Grand Illusions: Chicago s World s Fair of Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, Dillon, Diane. The Fair as a Spectacle: American Art and Culture at the 1893 World s Fair. Ph.D. diss., Yale University, Dwight, Eleanor. The Letters of Pauline Palmer. Easthampton, Massachusetts: M.T. Train/Scala Books, Elliot, Maud Howe. Ed. Art and Handicraft in the Woman s Building. Paris and New York: Gupil & Co. and Boussod, Valadon & Co.,

65 Findling, John E. Chicago s Great World s Fairs. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, Flinn, John J. The Official Guide to the World s Columbian Exposition. Chicago: The Columbian Guide Company, Garfinkle, Charlene Gallo. Women at Work: The Design and Decoration of the Women s Building at the 1893 World s Columbian Exposition. Ph.D. diss., University of Santa Barbara, Gere, Charlotte and Marina Vaizey. Great Women Collectors. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Grant, Virginia. Women and World s Fairs: American International Expositions, Ph.D. diss., Emory University, Handy, Moses. Official Directory of the World s Columbian Exposition. Chicago: W.B. Conkey Co., Harrison, Charles. Painting the Difference: Sex and Spectator in Modern Art. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, The Hobbs, Margo. Bertha Palmer s Philanthropy in the Arts. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, Holladay, Wilhelmina Cole. A Museum of Their Own: National Museum of Women in the Arts, New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, Holt, Elizabeth Gilmore. The Expanding World of Art, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, Igleheart, William. A Fair Companion. Chicago: Poole Bros., Jensen, Kirsten M. Her Sex Was an Insurable Objection: Sara Tyson Hallowell and the Art Institute of Chicago Southern Connecticut University, Johnson, Rossiter. Ed. A History of the World s Columbian Exposition Held in Chicago in vols. New York: D. Appleton and Co., Mancoff, Debra N. Mary Cassatt: Reflections of Women s Lives. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, Muccigrosso, Robert. Celebrating the New World: Chicago s Columbian Exposition of Chicago, Ivan R. Dee,

66 Northrup, Henry and Nancy Huston Banks. The World s Fair as Seen in One Hundred Days. Chicago: P.W. Rowe, Potter-Hennessey, Pamela Ann. The Sculpture at the 1893 Chicago World s Exposition: International Encounters and Jingoistic Spectacles. Ph.D.diss., University of Maryland College Park, Ross, Ishbel. Silhouette in Diamonds. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, Saarinen, Aline. The Proud Possessors. New York: Random House, Schultz, Rima Lunin and Adele Hast. Ed. Women Building Chicago Indiana: Indiana University Press, Shaw, Marian. World s Fair Notes. Minnesota: Pogo Press, Shepp, James W. Shepp s World s Fair Photographed. Chicago and Philadelphia: Globe Bible Publishing Co., Sparks, George Robert. The Dream City: A Portfolio of Photographic Views of the World s Columbian Exposition. St. Louis: N.D. Thompson Publishing Co., Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscence. New York: T. Fisher Unwin, Truman, Ben. History of the World s Fair. Philadelphia and Chicago: John C. Winston & Co., Week at the Fair. Chicago: Rand, Mc Nally and Co., Weimann, Jeanne Madeline. The Fair Women. Chicago: Academy Chicago, Articles Burckel, Nicholas C. History World s Fair Notes: A Woman Journalist Views of Chicago s 1893 World s Columbian Exposition by Marian Shaw. Library Journal 117, no. 17 (Oct ): 81. Gallagher, Bernice E. Illinois Women s Novels at the Woman s Building Library. Libraries and Culture 41, no.1 (Winter 2006): Gullet, Gayle. Our Great Opportunity: Organized Women Advance Women s Work at the World s Columbian Exposition of Illinois Historical Journal. 87 n ,

67 Hutton, John. Picking Fruit: Mary Cassatt s Modern Women and the Woman s Building of Feminist Studies 20, no.2 (Summer 1994): Leach, William. Transformation in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, The Journal of American History 71, no.2 (1984): Lewis, Russel. Everything Under One Roof. Chicago History 12, no.3 (1983): McDougall, Isabel. Woman s Work at the World s Fair. Frank Leslie s Popular Monthly. June Palmer, Bertha. Woman s Part in Chicago, World s Columbian Exposition, American Journal of Politics , 124. Pohl, Frances K. Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal? The Woman s Building at the World s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, International Journal of Women s Studies. 5 n , Sparks, George Robert. The Dream City: A Story of the World s Fair. Chicago: W.B. Conkey Co., Todd, Emily B. Afterword, The Woman s Building Library and History. Libraries and Culture 41, no.1 (Winter 2006): Van Hoesen, Antoinette. Women s Work at the Columbian Exposition. Harper s Bazaar, 10 October 1891, p Weimann, Jeanne Madeline. A Temple of Woman s Genius. Chicago History, 6 n. 1, 1977, Wood, Andrew F. Managing the Lady Managers. The Southern Communication Journal 69 no.4 (Summer 2004): World s Columbian Exposition Interior of Woman s Building. Scientific American, 9 September 1893, p Woman at Chicago. Literary World, 9 September 1893, p Websites Chicago History Museum. The World s Columbian Exposition. Field Museum World s Columbian Exposition Collection. 61

68 Free Library of Philadelphia. Centennial Exhibition Digital Collection. Illinois Institute of Technology, Paul V. Galvin Library Digital Collection. World s Columbian Exposition of Institute of Classical Architecture and Classical America. Classicist Blog: Daniel Chester French. Jane Addams Hull House Association. Mission. Library of Congress. Fredrick Law Olmstead. Masonic Service Association of North America. History. Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation. The Gage Home. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Candace Wheeler. National Museum of Women in the Arts. Collection. National Museum of Women in the Arts. Mission. Susan B. Anthony House. Home. Wels, Susan. Spheres of Influence. San Francisco State University. 62

69 Illustrations Illustration 1.1 Frederick Ward Putman American, Map of Jackson Park, Photograph 63

70 Illustration 1.2 Hyde Park Organization Map of Jackson Park, 2000 Jackson Park Advisory Council 64

71 Illustration 1.3 James W. Shepp American The Court of Honor, Photograph 65

72 Illustration 1.4 Frederick MacMonnies American, Columbian Fountain, Sculpture Presumed Destroyed 66

73 Illustration 1.5 Frederick MacMonnies American, Self-Portrait, 1896 Painting Terra Foundation of American Art 67

74 Illustration 1.6 Daniel Chester French American, Republic, 1893 Sculpture Presumed Destroyed 68

75 Illustration 1.7 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Daniel Chester French, Date Unknown Photograph Institute of Classical Architecture and Classical America 69

76 Illustration 1.8 T. Johnson American Frederick Olmstead, circa 1893 Engraving Library of Congress 70

77 Illustration 1.9 Photographer Origin Unknown The Midway Plaisance, 1893 Photograph The Field Museum Website, original at the University of Chicago, Library Special Collections 71

78 Illustration 1.10 James W. Shepp American The Ferris Wheel, 1893 Photograph 72

79 Illustration 1.11 James W. Shepp American Fine Arts Building, 1893 Photograph 73

80 Illustration 1.12 Museum of Science and Industry United States The Museum on Science and Industry, Chicago, 2010 Photograph 74

81 Illustration 1.13 James W. Shepp American The Woman s Building, 1893 Photograph 75

82 Illustration 1.14 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Sophia Hayden, 1893 Photograph Located in The Fair Women 76

83 Illustration 1.15 Sophia Hayden American, Gallery Plan Woman s Building, Photograph of Original Sketch 77

84 Illustration 1.16 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Alice Rideout, Photograph Located in The Fair Women 78

85 Illustration 1.17 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Enid Yandell, Photograph Located in The Fair Women 79

86 Illustration 1.18 Taylor and Brown United States Mrs. Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, 1876 Photograph from Original Wood Engraving Centennial Exhibition Digital Collection 80

87 Figure 1.19 Centennial Photographic Co. American Women s Pavilion, 1876 Silver Albumen Print Centennial Exhibition Digital Collection 81

88 Illustration 1.20 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Matilda Gage, Date unknown Albumin Print The Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation 82

89 Illustration 1.21 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Elizabeth Cady Stanton, circa 1890 Photograph Located in Eighty Years and More 83

90 Illustration 1.22 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Susan B. Anthony, Date Unknown Photograph Susan B. Anthony House 84

91 Illustration 1.23 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Bertha Honoré Palmer, 1893 Photograph Chicago Public Library Special Collections 85

92 Illustration 1.24 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Mr. Potter Palmer, 1865 Photograph Chicago History Museum 86

93 Illustration 1.25 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Jane Addams, 1931 Photograph Jane Addams Hull-House Museum 87

94 Illustration 1.26 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Hull House, circa 1890 City of Chicago, Chicago Bureau of Tourism 88

95 Illustration 1.27 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Fannie Barrier Williams, circa 1890 Photograph Unitarian Universalist Historical Society 89

96 Illustration 2.1 Artist Unknown Origin Unknown Sarah Hallowell, Photograph of Ink Sketch Located in The Fair Women 90

97 Figure 2.2 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Halsey Ives, circa 1893 Photograph Located in The Fair Women 91

98 Illustration 2.3: Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Mrs. Candace Wheeler, 1918 Photograph from Yesterdays in a Busy Life 92

99 Illustration 2.4 Mary Stevenson Cassatt American Portrait of the Artist, Date 1878 Gouache on paper 23 x 16 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art 93

100 Illustration 2.5 Mary Cassatt American, Modern Woman, Oil on Canvas 12 x 48 in Presumed Destroyed 94

101 Illustration 2.6 Artist Unknown Origin Unknown Mary Fairchild MacMonnies, Photograph of Ink Sketch Located in The Fair Women 95

102 Illustration 2.7: Mary Fairchild MacMonnies American Primitive Woman, Oil on Canvas 12 x 48 in Presumed Destroyed 96

103 Illustration 3.1 Photographer Unknown Origin Unknown Wilhelmina and Wallace Holladay, 2008 Photograph Located in A Museum of Their Own 97

104 Illustration 3.2 National Museum for Women in the Arts American National Museum for Women in the Arts, 1987 Photograph National Museum for Women in the Arts 98

105 Illustration 3.3 Elizabetta Sirani Italian, Virgin and Child, 1663 Oil on Canvas 34 x 27 ½ in National Museum for Women in the Arts 99

106 Illustration 3.4 Maria Sibylla Merian German, Dissertation in Insect Generation, 1719 Oil on Canvas Dimensions Unknown National Museum for Woman in the Arts 100

107 Illustration 3.5 Maria Sibylla Merian German, Metamorphosis in Surinam, 1719 Oil on Canvas Dimensions Unknown National Museum for Women in the Arts 101