Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition

Butler University Digital Commons @ Butler University Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection Undergraduate Scholarship Spring 3-20-2009 Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition Lauren Alexander Maxwell Butler University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/ugtheses Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Maxwell, Lauren Alexander, "Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition" (2009). Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection. 40. https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/ugtheses/40 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Undergraduate Scholarship at Digital Commons @ Butler University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Butler University. For more information, please contact omacisaa@butler.edu.

ConstructionsofFemininity: WomenandtheWorld'sColumbianExposition AThesis PresentedtotheDepartmentofHistory CollegeofLiberalArtsandSciences and TheHonorsProgram of ButlerUniversity InPartialFulfillment oftherequirementsforgraduationhonors LaurenAlexanderMaxwell March20,2009

1 Introduction Contents 1 TheQueenIsabellaAssociation 6 TheChicagoWomen sauxiliary 8 TheBoardofLadyManagers 9 FirstMeetingoftheBoard 16 ThePhoebeCouzinsAffair 20 PalmerConsolidatesHerPowers 22 TheQueenIsabellaPavilion 29 SecondMeetingoftheBoard 32 TheCongressofWomen 34 Conclusion 37 Bibliography 40

1 Introduction Asearlyas1885,prominentAmericansweresuggestingaWorld sfair commemoratingthequadro CentennialofColumbus discoveryofthenewworld. EachofthemajorAmericancitiesclamoredforthehonorofhostingthisexposition. Chicagowasonlyoneofthecompetitorsandwasnotsureitwouldsucceedin winningthecovetedprize. 1 WhenprominentChicagomenfoundedtheWorld s FairCorporationtosecuretheExpositionforthemselves,thecity sprofessional womenwereequallydeterminedtocontribute.consequently,onaugust17,1889, civic mindedwomenincorporatedthequeenisabellaassociationinthecityof Chicago.TheirgoalsweretoerectastatueinhonorofQueenIsabellaofCastile, acknowledgingherasthe codiscovererofthenewworld, andtobuildapavilion forlarge scalemeetingsofwomen. 2 Severalmonthslater,inOctober1889,another organization,thechicagowomen sauxiliary,wasestablished.thisgroupof womenhadthreegoals:theerectionofawoman sbuilding,adiscussionofcharity andphilanthropicwork,andfinally,tohelpchicago sbusinessmensellsharesin thechicagofaircorporation. 3 Fromtheoutset,thesetwogroupsdisagreedonthe purposeandscopeofwomen sinvolvementintheexposition.theisabellashoped toadvancethecauseofwomen ssuffrageandequalrightswhiletheauxiliary 1Foreaseofunderstanding,the World scolumbianexpositionof1893 willbereferredto throughoutassimply theexposition. Theeventwasalsocommonlyreferredtoasthe Chicago World sfair, whichisdemonstratedinmanyofthenamesofinvolvedorganizations.theboardof LadyManagersreferencesthebodyofwomenappointedtooverseewomen sworkatthe Exposition.Theother,allmale,organizationsinvolvedwiththeplanningoftheExpositionwere similarlystructured,andwerealsocalled boards. However,forthepurposesofthispaper,the BoardofLadyManagers willbereferredtothroughoutassimply theboard. 2Untitled,[ca.1890 1891],QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety 3JeanneWeimann,TheFairWomen(Chicago:AcademyChicago,1981),27.

2 womenwerefocusedonphilanthropy. 4 WhenCongressfinallyawardedthe ExpositiontoChicagoinAprilof1890,thefoundationwaslaidforconflictamong thewomenofchicago. ThewomenoftheQueenIsabellaAssociationweretheembodimentofwhat hasbeentermedthe NewWoman. WhiletheNewWomanwasanamalgamationof manydifferenttrends,historiansagreethatshe representsoneofthemost significantculturalshiftsofthelatenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies. 5 These womenchoseto movebeyonddomesticity andfoughttobecomeequalmembers ofamericansociopoliticallife. 6 JoanneMeyerowitzarguesthattheirgreater significancewasthetendencyofthenewwomanto challengethedominant Victoriansexualethos. 7 Sheinsertedherselfintothepublicsphereonherown terms,withouttheprotectionofthepatriarchalfamilystructure.thenewwoman waseducatedandsophisticated;shealsofrequentlyheldaprofessionaljob,a practicethatwasstillratherrevolutionaryattheopeningoftheexpositionin1893. TheprofessionalwomenofChicagoalsoprovideawindowforunraveling thecomplexroleofwomenintheindustrialcityattheturnofthecentury.thisis especiallytrueinthecityofchicago,wherewomentookanactiveroleinmunicipal affairsbeginningintheyearsfollowing1871,theyearofthegreatchicagofire. 8 Upperandmiddle classwomenusedtheirreformorganizationsandsocialcloutto 4Weimann,27 28. 5MarthaH.Patterson,TheAmericanNewWomanRevisited:AReader,1894 1930(NewBrunswick, NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2008),1. 6JoanneJ.Meyerowitz,WomenAdrift:IndependentWageEarnersinChicago,1880 1930(Chicago: TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1988),xvii. 7Meyerowitz,xix. 8MaureenA.Flanagan,SeeingwithTheirHearts:ChicagoWomenandtheVisionoftheGoodCity 1871 1933(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2002),58.

3 constructthecityasaplacethatallowedforwomen sautonomy.inchicago, womenbecameanimportantpartofthecity ssocialfabric,castingthemselvesas municipalhousekeepersandworkingtoensurethecitymaintainedawelcoming urbanculture. 9 WhilehistorianshavepaidampleattentiontothedevelopmentoftheNew WomanandwomeninthedevelopmentofurbanChicago,theyhavebeenless concernedwiththeparticipationofwomeninthecolumbianexposition. 10 Despite thislandmarkeventinamericanhistory,historianshavelargelyignoredgenderin theexposition. 11 Whilewomen sandgenderhistoriesareontheirwayto becomingasignificantpartofthemasternarrativeoftheexposition,mostofthese workshavetreatedwomenasaunifiedgroup.noneofthemhaveexaminedin detailtheconflictsbetweenthewomenthemselves,andhowananalysisofthis conflictcontributesthelargerdiscussionofthedefinitionofproperwomanhoodin theperiod. 9Flanagan,57. 10Forfurtherdiscussiononwomen surbanculture,seemeyerowitz,womenadrift;kathypeiss, CheapAmusements:WorkingWomenandLeisureinTurn of the CenturyNewYork(Philadelphia: TempleUniversityPress,1986);SharonWood,FreedomoftheStreets:Work,Citizenship,and SexualityinaGildedAgeCity(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005);Victoria Wolcott,RemakingRespectability:AfricanAmericanWomeninInterwarDetroit(ChapelHill,NC: UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001). 11NumeroussourceshaveexaminedtheExpositionitself;itsarchitecture,exhibits,andcongresses capturedthepublic simaginationandprovidedvastresourcesforhistoricalstudy.seerobert Knutson, TheWhiteCity:theWorld scolumbianexpositionof1893 (PhDdiss.,Columbia University,1956);TitusKarlowicz, TheArchitectureoftheWorld scolumbianexposition (PhD diss.,northwesternuniversity,1965);donaldl.miller,cityofthecentury:theepicofchicagoand themakingofamerica(newyork:simon&schusterpaperbacks,1996);eriklarson,thedevilinthe WhiteCity:Murder,Magic,andMadnessattheFairThatChangedAmerica(NewYork:Crown Publishers,2003).Ofthesehistorians,onlyLarsonincludesanydiscussionofthewomeninvolved intheplanningoftheexposition.eventhen,allofthecreditforthewomen seffortsgoestodaniel Burnham,theChiefArchitectoftheExposition,despitethefactthatwomenproducedthemost successfulexhibit,thewoman sbuilding.

4 JeanneWeimann sthefairwomen,thefirstmajorworkthatfocusedonthe contributionsofwomenintheplanningoftheexposition,didnotappearuntil 1981. 12 Weimannoffersadetailedaccountoftheworkofwomenbefore,during, andaftertheexpositionandilluminatesmanyoftheconflictsthatensuedinthe planningandexecutionoftheirresponsibilities.hernarrativeprovidesadetailed accountofthefactionsthatexistedwithintheboardofladymanagersandthe sourcesoftheircompetingideologies.whilethisworkchroniclestheevents leadinguptotheexposition,itfailstomakeacoherenthistoricalargument concerningtheactivitiesoftheboard. JaneHomsherusestheBoardofLadyManagersattheColumbianExposition todiscussfemaleidentityintheperiodandthewaysinwhichitinfluencedcultural values. 13 Byexploitingsocietalbeliefsaboutwomen sinnatemorality,chicago s womeninsertedthemselvesintothepublicspherethroughsocialreformwork. 14 Shediscusseshowfemininitywasunderstoodintheperiod,andattheColumbian Expositionmorespecifically,andhowwomencapitalizedontheirfemininerolesas ajustificationfortheirexpandedinvolvementinmunicipallife. CharleneGarfinkleexaminestheembodimentofwomen sparticipationat theexpositionthroughananalysisoftheculturalsignificanceofthewoman s Building,statingthat neverhadwoman sparticipationbeensoconspicuous, 12TheinterestinexploringtheroleofwomenintheExpositionemergedfromthefieldofwomen s history,duetothesecondwaveofthefeministmovementintheprecedingtwodecades. 13JaneElizabethRomanoHomsher, TheGeniusofLiberty,CulturalMotherhoodattheWorld s ColumbianExposition,Chicago,1893 (PhDdiss.,SanFranciscoStateUniversity,1994),7. 14Homsher,26.

5 important,orcompleteasatthechicagoworld scolumbianexpositionof1893. 15 Throughanexaminationofthebuildingdécor,Garfinklemaintains thewomenof 1893werenotinterestedinreplacingtheirrolesofwifeandmotherwiththatof careerwoman. 16 Inthis,shefailstorecognizethatherdiscussionappliesonlyto thesmallgroupofwomenthatdirectedtheconstructionanddecorationofthe Woman sbuilding.herdiscussionisonlyaglimpseintotheideologyofthewomen chargedwithexhibitingwomen swork. Morerecently,MaryCordatodiscussedthedifferentrepresentationsof women sworkatthemajoramericanexpositionsin1876,1893,and1904. 17 CordatotracesatendencyinthethreeExpositionstomoveclosertoaviewof equalityofmenandwomen.cordato sanalysisparallelsthedevelopmentofthe NewWoman,asshemovesfromararitytoafixtureinAmericanlife. Thesegenderhistorianshavebeguntheexplorationofhowwomen s identityisdefinedinchicagoattheturnofthecentury.theywereactive participantsinchicagomunicipallifeandtheiractionsweredeterminedbytheway inwhichtheythoughtabouttheiridentitiesaswomen.however,thereisa tendencytotreatthewomenofchicagoasaunifiedentity;therearenodistinctions drawnbetweendifferentvisionsofhowthenewwomanshouldbedefined.in reality,therewerecompetingvisionsofthenewwomanandhowsheinteracted withthecityaroundher.anexaminationofthecolumbianexpositionoffersan 15CharleneG.Garfinkle, WomenatWork:TheDesignandDecorationoftheWoman sbuildingat the1893world scolumbianexposition Architecture,ExteriorSculpture,StainedGlass,and InteriorMurals (PhDdiss.,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,1996),20. 16Garfinkle, WomenatWork, 292. 17MaryF.Cordato, RepresentingtheExpansionofWoman ssphere:women sworkandcultureat theworld sfairsof1876,1893,and1904 (PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,1981),15 16.

6 opportunitytoexaminethesourceofdifferentvisionsofwomanhoodandhowone visionismarginalizedinfavorofanother.theexpositionalsoallowsan examinationofwomen scultureinthecityofchicago;inthiscity,women s involvementinmunicipalaffairsisnotsporadic.thecolumbianexpositionisa uniquesettingtoexaminethedifferentvisionsofwomanhoodinurbanspaces. TheQueenIsabellaAssociation TheQueenIsabellaAssociationwasaggressiveintheircampaignto representwomen sinterestsintheexposition;theydecidednottoconfinetheir effortstochicagoandchosetoestablishbranchesoftheirassociationinother cities.byallowingparticipationintheassociationtowomeninothercities,the Isabellasestablishedawidercircleofinfluenceandincreasedthechancesof achievingtheirgoals.theyopenedchaptersinnewyork,washingtond.c.,andst. Louis,creatinganorganizednationalAssociation. 18 Notonlydidthisaction guaranteeabroaderbaseofsupportfortheirgoals,butalsounderminedthe attemptsofrivalcitiestowintheexposition.chicagowasinheatedcompetition withnewyork,st.louis,andwashington,d.c.toserveastheexposition shost, andifwomeninthosecitiesarguedforachicagolocation,itgreatlyincreasedthe chancesofchicago ssuccesswhilediminishingthechancesofrivalcities. Immediately,theycommencedaccumulatingfinancialsupportfortheirproposed 18 HonorDueToIsabella, ChicagoDailyTribune,March3,1890.

7 statue.aftercommissioningthesculptorharriethosmertocreatethestatue,they startedsellingsharesforthestatueimmediatelyaftertheirincorporation. 19 TheIsabellas effortsrepresentedalesstraditionalviewofwomen srolein society,andspecificallythemeaningofwomen swork.ratherthanassumingthat womenwereonlyintheworkforcetemporarily,theisabellasbelievedthat women sworkcouldbeasignificantandlifelongendeavor.theassociationtended toattractprimarilymiddle class,educatedwomenthatwerequalifiedtoworkina professionalfield. 20 Thesewomenweremoreapttochooseacareerthatrequired aneducationoverwagework,atrendthatwasinitsbeginningstagesin1890. Frequently,theywereadvocatesforwomen ssuffrageandpoliticalrightsequalto thoseoftheirmalepeers.theisabellaswerethereforeunique;theyoftenmade choicesthatwereconsideredabnormalbysocietyatlarge.theirorganization servednotjustasanimpermanentorganizationalbodyfortheone timeeventof theexposition,butasasupportnetworkforthosewomenwhoweresimilarly pursuingaprofessionalcareer. 21 ThenewlyformedQueenIsabellaAssociationwasareadilyrecognizable organizationamongcitizensofchicagobymarchof1890.theirlong termgoalwas toestablishtheassociationpermanently;theyanticipatedthattheirmeetings duringtheexpositionwouldturnintoaninternational unionofworkersin 19Untitled,May11,1891,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 20Untitled,ca.1890,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety.The Associationalsoattractedsmallnumbersofworking classwomenthathadameasureoffinancial independence.becausethepriceofmembershipwassetatonedollarandashareinthestatueat fivedollars,mostworking classwomenwereunabletoaffordthenecessaryfees. 21ProposedPlanfortheInternationalCongressoftheMedicalDepartmentoftheQueenIsabella Association,tobeheldinChicago,U.S.A.,in1893,ca.1892,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets, ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

8 professions,tradesandoccupationsoflife,whoextendahelpinghandtothosein searchofadviceorinformation. 22 Inofferingthesesupportnetworksto professionalandworkingwomen,theisabellastendedtobemuchmoreradical thanwasreadilyacceptableinamericansocietyatthetime.theydidnotbelieve thattheirrolesinsocietywerelimitedtobeingdaughters,wives,andmothers,but insteadtheyweresomeofthefirstwomentopursueprofessionalcareers. ChicagoWomen sauxiliary WhiletheIsabellasincreasedtheirnationalmembership,theAuxiliaryhad nopressingneedtoestablishanetworkofsupport.theauxiliaryhadthe advantageoftiestoprominentchicagoestablishments,throughwomen sclubs, philanthropyworkorthewealthandpoliticalconnectionsoftheirhusbands.the AuxiliaryofficeswerelocatedinthesamebuildingastheofficesoftheWorld sfair Corporation. 23 Thiscloseproximityfacilitatedastrongconnectionbetweenthe AuxiliarywomenandtheprominentmeninvolvedinbringingtheExpositionto Chicago,whichdidnotbodewellfortheIsabellas. Ingeneral,theAuxiliarywomenheldsociallyconservativeviews,especially inregardtowomenasworkers.thesewomenbelievedthatanywoman s excursionintothepublicrealmofsocietyshouldbeanextensionoftheir 22ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation,Untitled,[ca.1891],QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 23Weimann,30.

9 traditional,nurturingroles.theauxiliarywomenwerewealthy,andtherefore spenttheirtimeengaginginphilanthropicactivitiesinsteadofworkingtosupport themselves.mostofthesewomenhadreceivedsomedegreeofeducation,butthey employedtheirknowledgeverydifferentlyfromtheisabellas.overwhelmingly,the Auxiliarywomenbelievedthattheyweretoplayasupportingroletotheir husbandsandtheircontributionsdemonstratedaconservativeviewofappropriate activitiesforwomen.foryears,thesewomenhadbeeninvolvedinprominent women sclubsinchicago,participatingineffortstoremedytheimmoralityand inherentfilthofthecity.theirinvolvementwiththeauxiliaryextendedtheirwork asmoralreformersandphilanthropistsintothepoliticalrealm. TheBoardofLadyManagers OnApril25,1890PresidentBenjaminHarrisonsignedintolawabill establishingchicagoasthesitefortheexposition.thebillprovidedfortwoallmalegoverningbodiescalledthenationalcommissionandthechicagodirectoryto presideoverthedevelopmentandexecutionoftheexposition. 24 Anumberof wealthyandinfluentialchicagobusinessmenwereappointedtotheseboards.also includedinthebillwasanamendmentthatestablishedtheboardoflady 24Theseorganizations,theNationalCommissionandtheDirectory,hadmajorconflictsintheearly monthsofplanningbecauseofalackofcommunication.eventually,theboardofcontrolwas createdtomediatethedisputes.

10 Managers,tobeappointedbytheNationalCommission. 25 Itspurposewasto overseeallmatterspertainingtowomen sworkattheexposition.thisrecognition ofwomen sabilitytocontributetotheplanningoftheexpositionwaslargelydueto thelobbyingeffortsofseveralprominentwomensuchassusanb.anthonyand MyraBradwell,thoughtheyhadhopedtosecureappointmentsofwomentothe NationalCommissionandtheDirectory,nottheestablishmentofaseparateand sex segregatedboard. 26 Women sparticipationintheadministrationoftheexpositionwasan indicatoroftheirincreasinginfluenceinthepublicsphere;however,individual womenhadverydifferentviewsonjustwhichroleswomenshouldpursueinthat publicsphere.thesedifferentviewsstemmedlargelyfromdifferentideologies thatdevelopedoutofdifferentsocialbackgrounds.whiletheauxiliarycamefrom wealthyupperclassfamilies,theisabellasconsistedofmiddleclassprofessional women. 27 Thedebatesbetweenthesetwogroupsofwomenthreatenedthe stabilityofboard,buteventuallytheviewsoftheauxiliarywonthedebatethrough theirgreatereconomic,social,andpoliticalinfluence. ThiswasthefirstmomentinAmericanhistorythatwomenhadaformal, institutionalizedroleintheplanningandexecutionofgovernmenttasks;toserve asamemberoftheboardofladymanagerswastoparticipateinasingular momentinamericanwomen shistory.whenthechicagofaircorporationchose 25Weimann,33. 26Ibid.,36. 27The ChicagoWomen sauxiliary willbereferredtothroughoutassimply theauxiliary. The womenofthequeenisabellaassociation willbereferredtoas Isabellas andthe QueenIsabella Association assimply theassociation.

11 theirrepresentativestoserveonthechicagodirectoryattheendofapril,boththe IsabellasandtheAuxiliaryattemptedtowintheirfavor,aswellasthefavorofthe NationalCommission.Eachorganizationhadverydifferentvisionsofthewayin whichtheboardwouldfunction,whichcontributedtotheintensityofthe competitionbetweenthetwogroups.forseveralmonths,womenfromboth organizationssoughtrecognitionfromthemenservingonthenational Commissionandpetitionedforpoliciesthatwouldservetheirowninterests.While theauxiliarywomenlobbiedforaboardcomprisedofactivechicagowomen,the Isabellasarguedfornationalrepresentation. 28 Thesedifferingperspectiveswereduetothestructureoftheorganizations. WhiletheAuxiliarywomenwerelocatedonlyinthecityofChicago,theIsabellas hadawidespreadnetworkofwomenallacrosstheunitedstates.iftheboardof LadyManagersweretobeassembledfromthenationasawhole,thenitwasmuch morelikelythattheisabellaswouldreceivegreaternumbersontheboard. However,iftheBoardweremadeupofwomenfromChicago,itwasalmostasurety thattheauxiliarywomenwoulddominatetheseleadershiproles.thegroupthat wonthegreaternumberofseatsontheboardwouldbeabletoinfluencethe ideologicalframeworkandcontrolthewaythatwomenwererepresentedatthe Exposition.ThewomenoftheAuxiliaryhadbeenactiveinChicago sciviclifefor manyyears,andtheirhusbandswereamongthemostprominentmeninthecity. TheExpositionofferedthemaverypublicarenainwhichtoshowcasetheirtalents 28 The BoardofLadyManagers, ChicagoDailyTribune,June20,1890.

12 inmunicipaldecision makingbyservingonagovernmentaladministrativeboard. 29 Inaddition,theAuxiliarywomenwereabletoexploittheircloserelationshipswith themenoftheworld sfaircorporation,assuringtheirprominenceintheselection ofladymanagers.theisabellas,whodidnotholdsuchhighpositionsinthe Chicagocommunity,wereunlikelytohavethesamesocialrecognition,and thereforewerelesslikelytohavesignificantrepresentationontheboard. Thoughneitherorganizationreceivedanofficialresponse,theChicago TribunereportedinlateMay,1890thattheAuxiliarywomenhadbeenpromised leadershipoftheboardofladymanagersaswellasalargesumofmoneytoerect theirbuildingontheexpositiongrounds. 30 Refusingtobediscouraged,the Isabellasproposedamethodforanequitableselectionofthemembersofthe Board,proposingthatwomenfromeachstatevoteforseveralrepresentativesfrom whichtheappointmentswouldbemade. 31 ThiswouldmaketheBoard nationalin character andinvolvewomenfromtheentirenationintheplanningofthe Exposition. 32 Eventually,theirlobbyinghadsomeeffect;justbeforethe appointmentswereannounced,thomaspalmer,thepresidentofthenational Commission,statedthatheplannedtotreatbothorganizationsequally.Thoughhe hadnofamilialtiestothepowerfulpotterandberthapalmer,thecityofchicago s premierfamily,hisappointmentasthepresidentofthenationalcommission affordedhimapositionofinfluenceinthechicagocommunityforthedurationof 29Flanagan,57. 30FixingTheirPowers,ChicagoDailyTribune,May29,1890. 31QueenIsabellaAssociation, BoardofLadyManagersShouldBeNational, June26,1890,Queen IsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 32 The BoardofLadyManagers, ChicagoDailyTribune,June20,1890.

13 theplanningoftheexposition.uponspeakingtopalmerinmid September,the ChicagoTribunereportedthatitwas probablethatthequeenisabellaassociation willgetitsthree[appointments],andthatthewomen sauxiliarywilllikelyget preciselythesamenumber,theotherthreebeingappointedoutsideofeither organization. 33 Severalweekslater,ThomasPalmerannouncedtheappointmentoftheLady Managers.Knowingthattheseappointmentswerelikelytoinciteangerin Chicago swomenfrombothorganizations,hemadehimselfscarceforthreeweeks, hopingthatinthattime,thefurorwoulddiedown. 34 ThoughtheCommissionhad promisedtotreatthetwoorganizationsfairlyandequally,thefinalappointments overwhelminglyfavoredtheauxiliarywomen.thereweretwoladymanagers fromeachstateandterritory,whichappearedtosatisfytherequestoftheisabellas. However,thewomennamedtothesepositionswererarelysympathetictothe Isabellas agenda;moreoftentheywereanalogoustotheauxiliarywomen.they werethemostprominentwomenfromtheirstateorterritory,whichoftenmeant thattheywereattheverytopoftheupperclassandwereunlikelytoadvocatefor theformalequalityofwomenthattheisabellassought.forexample,mary Trautman,aLadyManagerfromtheinfluentialstateofNewYork,wassincerein herbeliefthatwomenweretomaintaintraditionalstandardsofappropriate behaviorevenintheirdutiesincivicgovernment.shewroteletterstoanylady Managersthatshebelievedtobetoooutspokenintheirobjectionsandadvocated 33 ToBeEquallyDivided, ChicagoDailyTribune,September14,1890. 34Palmer scoupd Etat,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28,1890.

14 harmoniousactionatalltimes,nomatterhowdivisiveanissuemaybe. 35 Many otherladymanagerssharedthissentiment;trautman sviewsbynomeans representedtheminorityofopinionamongtheboardmembers. TheappointmentsthatweremostdisappointingtotheIsabellaswerethe nineadditionalladymanagersfromchicago.ofthesenine,fourweredirectly affiliatedwiththeauxiliaryandonlyonewiththeisabellas;thisstateofaffairswas quiteadeparturefromthepromisedthreeappointmentsforeachorganizationthat hadbeenmadeonlytwoweeksearlier. 36 Theseseatsweresignificantbecausethe ChicagoLadyManagershadmorecloutthantheothersbymerevirtueofproximity; itwasimpossibleforoveronehundredladymanagerstoresideinchicagofortwo years.asaresult,themanagersinthecitywerethevoicesheardmostfrequently. Bothorganizationswerebitterlydisappointedatwhattheyperceivedtobe lowrepresentationoftheirrespectiveorganizations. 37 Whilethissentimentwas moreaccurateinthecaseoftheisabellas,theauxiliarywomenhadexpectedtheir socialconnectionstoguaranteethemamajorityonthechicagoboard.thishad failedtomaterializeastheyheldonlyfouroutofthenineseats;theywereunableto usethepowerofmajoritytoassuretheirviewswouldalwaysprevail.however, theauxiliarywasinamuchmorepowerfulpositionthantheisabellasbecausethey onlyneededoneextravoteforamajoritywin,asopposedtotheisabellas needfor 35Weinmann,97. 36ThoseaffiliatedwiththeAuxiliaryincludedJennieSanfordLewis,MarionMulligan,Myra Bradwell,andEmmaWallace.Thesewomenrepresentedsomeofthemostactiveclubwomenin Chicagoandweregenerallysatisfiedtoplayasubordinateandsex segregatedroleinthecity s publicspaces.infact,someofthesewomenwerethefirsttosuggesttheformationofawomen s auxiliarybranchtochicago sworld sfaircorporation. WomenandtheFair, ChicagoDaily Tribune,October19,1890. 37Palmer scoupd Etat,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28,1890.

15 fouradditionalvotes.moreover,theirpoliticalconnectionsmadeitmuchmore likelythattheywouldbeabletoswayothermembersoftheboardtovoteinfavor ofmeasuressupportedbytheauxiliary.theauxiliaryhadessentiallybecome synonymouswiththeboardofladymanagers.onlyasmallminorityofwomen servingontheoverallboardidentifiedthemselvesasisabellas. 38 Ratherthanconcedingdefeatinthewakeofthispoliticalupset,theIsabellas chosetocontinueactivelycampaigningfortheircause.theyhostedsocialevents inthecitytoincreaseawarenessfortheirproposedstatueofqueenisabella. 39 Theyalsocontinuedtosendoutpamphletsencouragingmembershipinthe Associationandhighlightingthebenefitsofmembership. 40 Departmentswere formednotonlytoprovideprofessionalwomenaforumtodiscussissuesof significanceintheworkforceandtheirgreatercommunities,butalsotogivethese womenanopportunitytosupportoneanotherintheirendeavors. 41 Dividedinto art,science,literature,tradeoroccupation, thesedepartmentsweredesignedto promotetheinterestsofallmembers andestablishanorganizationthatwas connectedwiththecolumbianexpositiononlybecauseanopportunity[was] affordedofholdingaconference. 42 Itwasalwaysintendedthatthemeetingsatthe Expositionwouldbethefirstofmanyintheyearstocome.Thiswasbelievedtobe 38ThoughthereweresomewomenthatidentifiedthemselvesasIsabellasservingontheBoardof LadyManagers,thispaperwillrefertothemthroughoutasaseparateentity.Thisisduetothevery differentideologiesthatthesewomenheld,whichoftencreatedconflictswiththelargeproportion ofwomenservingontheboard. 39AReceptiontoMrs.Hooker,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28,1890. 40 ApplicationforMembership, ca.1890 1891,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 41TheyHaveBut$300,000,ChicagoDailyTribune,October4,1890. 42 ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation, May11,1891,QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

16 importantinencouragingwomentocontinueonintheircareers,despiteresistance thattheymaymeet.thiscampaigningcontinuedthroughoutthemonthsleading uptotheexposition. 43 FirstMeetingoftheBoard ThefirstmeetingoftheBoardofLadyManagersconvenedonNovember18, 1890. 44 OnNovember20,BerthaPalmerwonthenominationforPresidentbya unanimousvote.palmerheldconsiderableinfluenceinthecityofchicagowell beforebecomingthepresidentoftheboardofladymanagers.shewasa prominentmemberofthetwomostinfluentialwomen sclubsinchicago:the FortnightlyClubandtheChicagobranchoftheWomen schristiantemperance Union. 45 WhileshewasnotaregisteredmemberoftheAuxiliary,shedidshare theirideologyandbeliefsaboutwomen sroleinsociety.shewasabletouseher appointmenttothechicagoboardtoturnmanydecisionsinfavoroftheauxiliary women sobjectives,ashervoteusuallytippedthedecisioninfavoroftheauxiliary women.herinfluencewasintensifiedbythefactthatherhusband,potterpalmer, wasoneofthewealthiestandmostsuccessfulbusinessmeninthethreedecades 43VirginiaPopulistsNameaTicket,ChicagoDailyTribune,August4,1893. 44TheOfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagersoftheWorld scolumbiancommission:the MinutesoftheBoardfromtheDateofitsOrganization,November19,1890,totheCloseofitsSecond Session,September9,1891,IncludingtheActofCongress,andInformationinRegardtotheActionof theworld scolumbiancommissionandofthechicagodirectoryofthecolumbianexposition (Chicago:Rand,McNally&Company,1891),43. 45SallyWebster,Eve sdaughter/modernwoman:amuralbymarycassatt(urbana,il:universityof IllinoisPress,2004),50.

17 leadinguptotheexposition.heownedsignificantamountsofvaluablerealestate andwastheproprietorofthefamouspalmerhouse,alavishhotelthatcateredto themostinfluentialfiguresoftheday,includingseveralunitedstatespresidents. 46 PotterPalmerhadalsobeennamedthesecondvice presidentofthedirectory,and servedasamemberofthecommitteeongroundsandbuildingsandthecommittee onfinearts. 47 Uponherelection,Palmerspoutedloftyidealsaboutunityinallthe Board sactions,saying, Wemust,however,seriouslyrealizethegreatnessoftheopportunitywhich hasbeengivenus Aboveallthingselse,harmoniousactionisnecessary. Thatisthefoundationwhichwemusthaveforthesuperstructurethatisto begraduallyerected,andwhichwetrustwillbethesuccessfulresultofour worktogether. 48 Thiskindofunitywasnotdemonstrated,however,inthenextorderof business,asthenominationfortheboard ssecretarywasmuchmorediscordant. Therewereatotalofsixnomineesfortheposition,butafterfourballots,the Isabella scandidate,phoebecouzins,wonthenecessaryvotesbyaveryslim margin. 49 TheseelectionssetthestagefortheconflictbetweentheIsabellasand themajorityoftheboard.whilecouzinswasadedicatedsuffragist,palmerwas muchmoreconcernedwiththeexpansionofwomen srolesasmothersandwives intothepublicrealmthanwithfightingforbothpoliticalandsocialequalitywith men. 50 Thetwowomenrepresentedthedistinctionbetweenthetraditional clubwomanandthenewwoman;whilebothactivelyparticipatedinthepublic 46 WomenandtheFair, ChicagoDailyTribune,October19,1890. 47Weimann,42. 48MinutesoftheFirstSessionoftheBoardofLadyManagers,1890Nov.19 1890Nov.26,Boardof LadyManagersCollection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 49TheOfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagers,59. 50Cordato,221.

18 sphere,theyhadverydifferentbeliefsregardingthepropermannerofdoingso. TheongoingdebatebetweenthesetwowomeneventuallyresultedCouzins forcibleremovalfromherposition.inretaliation,couzinsfiledalawsuitagainst theboardofladymanagers,anthelegalbattlethatensuedwasthemostpublic displayoftheclashbetweentheisabellasandtheboard,greatlyunderminingthe Board sauthorityinthepubliceye. 51 OneofthefirstdebatesthatemergedinthefirstBoardmeetingconcerned therepresentationofwomen swork.theisabellasbelievedthatwomen swork shouldbeexhibitedalongsidethatofmen,andalsoinsistedthatallworkthatwas presentedattheexpositionshouldbe accompaniedbyanaffidavitofthenumber ofwomenemployedinitsproduction sothatthecontributionsofwomeninall professionalfieldswouldberecognized. 52 Thisopinionwasinnowayunanimous amongthewomenoftheboard,asmostboardwomenwerenotyetreconciledto theideathatwomencouldhavefulfillingprofessionalcareers.thisreflectedtheir trenchantlyheldbeliefthatdespitetheirparticipationinmunicipalgovernment, thiswastobeanexpansionoftheirtraditionallyfeminineroles. 53 Aprofessional careerviolatedvictoriansexualmoresandwasthereforelessrespectablethan participatinginsocialreformactivities. ThemajorityoftheBoardwomenwantedtocreateadisplayofwomen s workintheirown,gendersegregatedbuildingtodemonstratetheprogresswomen 51BerthaPalmertoMrs.Felton,August25,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 52Untitled,October18,1890,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 53Flanagan,10.

19 hadmadeinthecenturiessincecolumbus discoveryoftheamericas. 54 This buildingwasalsodesignedtoserveastheadministrativecenterfortheboard duringtheexposition. 55 AttheendofthefirstsessionoftheBoard,thewomen submittedanapplicationforawoman sbuildingtotheexposition sdirectors,and wereeventuallyapproved.thedirectorsdidnotspecificallydictatethepurposeof thisbuilding,whichleftthedecisiontothediscretionoftheladymanagers. 56 As PalmerstartedtoconsolidateherpowerontheBoard,itwasincreasinglylikely thatthebuildingwouldbeusedforseparateexhibitionsofwomen swork. 57 Tosatisfyanydetractors,Palmeraskedthateachexhibitinthemain buildingsbelabeledwithaplacardstatingthepercentageoftheexhibitthatwas producedbywomen slabor.bydoingso,sheappearedtosatisfytheisabella s demandthatwomen sworkbegivenequalconsiderationasmen s,butpalmerwas stillabletoplacealltheexhibitsofwomen sworkinthebuildingconstructedby theboard.ultimately,however,hersuggestionwasfutile;therequestedstatistics wererarelyacquiredduetopoorsurveyresponse. 58 Thiscreatedanillusory impressionthatwomenwerenotinvolvedtoasignificantdegreeintheproduction ofmanyindustrialandcraftgoods.palmer ssuggestionperpetuatedtheperception thatwomenwerenotanimportantpartoftheamericaneconomy,butratherwere onlyinvolvedinwomen sclubmovementsacrossthecountry.eveninthissmallest 54 GreatProgressMadeThisWeek, ChicagoDailyTribune,November29,1890. 55Weimann,51. 56Ibid.,54. 57ChicagoHerald,December27,1890;asquotedinWeimann,55. 58Webster,52.

20 ofcompromises,theisabellassawtherepresentationofwomenasindependent wageearnersintheexposition sexhibitsdisappear. ThePhoebeCouzinsAffair AtthefirstBoardmeeting,theIsabellashadwonthesmallvictoryofelecting oneoftheirmostprominentmembers,phoebecouzins,asboardsecretary.as such,itwascouzins primaryresponsibilitytorecordandpublishtheofficial minutesoftheboard.afterthefirstsession,thenoteswereindisarray;ittook Couzinsseveralweekstoputtheminorder.Intheweeksthatfollowed,Couzins wasobligatedtotravelduringtheholidaysandwasunabletocomeintotheoffice tofinisheditingtheminutes;however,shewasassuredthattheminutescouldnot bepublishedwithoutherwrittenconsent.whenshereturnedseveralweekslater, shediscoveredthatsomeofthereportsoftheby lawshadbeenaltered.ineach instance,thealterationsservedtoallowthepresidentgreaterdiscretionand influenceovertheboard sactivitieswhilesimultaneouslycurbingthepowersof thesecretary.whenotherladymanagerswereconsultedaboutthediscrepancies, amajorityagreedwithcouzins interpretation. 59 WhenCouzinsfinishededitingtheminuteswiththeoriginalby laws,which maintainedamoreequitabledistributionofpowerbetweenthepresidentandthe Secretary.However,beforetheminutescouldbeapprovedbythedesignated 59Weimann,75.

21 committees,couzinsfellillandwasbedriddenforseveralweeks.duringher absence,palmerworkedfeverishlytoensurethatcouzinswouldhaveverylittle practicalpowerontheboarduponherreturn.workingcloselywiththe Commission,Palmerwonspecialdispensationsthatenabledhertomake authoritativedecisionsincouzins stead. 60 WhenCouzinswasremovedfromherpositionbecauseofherinsistence thatpalmer sactivitieswereillegal,shesoughtlegalaction.couzinsstrongly believedthatshewasentitledtojustice,andnoamountofpleadingcouldenticeher todrophersuit.thisturnedintoaratherembarrassingaffairfortheboard,and forpalmerpersonally.forawomanthatvalued harmoniousaction aboveallelse, averypubliclawsuitwasherworstnightmare. 61 Eventually,Palmerwas vindicatedwhenthejudgethrewoutcouzins suitduetoinsufficientevidence,but shewouldalwaysremembertheincidentwithbitterness. PalmerwasespeciallyhurtbytheCouzinsaffairbecauseitviolatedher beliefsabouthowproperwomenshouldcomportthemselves.towardtheendof theconflict,sheexpressedherdisappointmentinotherwomen sbehavior,writing, Mygreatdesirewastopreventanymorequarrelsorevidenceofbadfeeling comingbeforethepublic.isupposethetruthis,thataswomencome forwardintopubliclife,theywillbeactuatedbyjustthesamemotivesas men,andshowthesamepersonalambitionsanddivideintoasmany factions;butatpresent,whileweareontrialandallworkingapparentlyfor thesamegoodcause,itseemsveryunwomanlytohavesomanyhard feelingsariseamongus,andsomanycontentionstosettle. 62 60Weimann,83 85. 61MinutesoftheFirstSessionoftheBoardofLadyManagers,1890Nov.19 1890Nov.26,Boardof LadyManagersCollection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 62BerthaPalmertoMrs.Logan,November3,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

22 Theviciousfightthatbrokeoutbetweenthetwogroupsofwomenhad demonstratednotonlytheirrespectivebeliefsaboutproperbehaviorforwomen, butalsotheincrediblestrengthofthosebeliefs.bothpalmerandcouzinsdisplayed greatdepthoffeelingthroughouttheconflict,indicatingthegreatsignificancethat thisdebatehadforthewaywomeninterpretedandunderstoodtheirownlives. PalmerConsolidatesHerPowers Inthefollowingmonths,Palmerlaunchedanefforttosecureherpositionas notonlythefigureheadoftheboard,butalsoasitsvoice.thiswasfairlyeasyfor hertoaccomplish.asmostoftheladymanagerswerefromdistantstatesand territories,therewereveryfewboardmembersinthecityofchicagoatanygiven time.manyoftheladymanagerswereheavilyreliantonthecommunicationsfrom Palmer sofficetostayinformedaboutthedecisionsandissuesfacingtheboard. TheonlyothersourceofinformationtheLadyManagershadwas newspapercoverage,butthenewscoverageoftheboard sactivitieswasobtained almostexclusivelyfrompalmerherself.thelocalandnationalpresssourced PalmeralmostexclusivelyasaresultofherstatusasPresidentandtheBoard sde factoleader.intheeventthatthenewspapercoveragewasnottoherliking, PalmertookfurtherstepstoensurethattheBoardwaspaintedinaflatteringlight. SheappearstohaveusedhersocialcloutinthecityofChicagotoinfluencethetone oftheeditorialcontentinseveralmajorchicagonewspapers.inalettertomrs.

23 Shakespeare,PalmerclearlyreferstoherdisapprovalregardingtheChicago Herald snewscoveragethatspokeinfavoroftheisabellas,saying, wehavetalked withtheeditorandhaveshownthemhowwrongtheirimpressionswere,andhow absurdthepretentionsofanyotherbodyofwomentooccupythisfield. 63 It appearsthatthisconversationwaseffective,asshelaterwritestojasperscott,the editoroftheherald,stating, Iamverymuchgratifiedatthefriendlypositionnow takenbytheheraldandithankyouforyourassurancethatitwillcontinue. 64 EvenwhenPalmerwasoutofthecountryonherEuropeantour,Scottcontinuedto speakoftheboardfavorably. 65 Herinfluenceoverhiseditorialcontentwasso greatthathewaseasilyswayedtochangehisinterpretationofwomen s participationintheexposition.hewasafraidtopublishanythingthatmightbe interpretedasnegative,orevenambivalent,evenwhilepalmerwasmorethanan oceanaway. Therewaslittleopportunityforothers,includingtheIsabellas,toreportthe activitiesoftheboardorthepresidentinamannerthatwasunfavorabletopalmer. ThishegemonyofcommunicationeffectivelyestablishedPalmerastheonly availablesourceofinformation,whichmadethenon localmembersoftheboardof LadyManagerswhollydependentonhertounderstandtheimportantissuesthat camebeforethem.thisputtheisabellasatadistinctdisadvantagewhenthetwo factionscameintoconflict,astheyhadverylimitedcommunicationwiththelady 63BerthaPalmertoMrs.Shakespeare,January24,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 64BerthaPalmertoMr.Scott,February7,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 65BerthaPalmertoMr.Scott,August3,1891,BoardofLadyMangersCollection,ChicagoHistorical Society.

24 Managers.TheIsabellashadfewresourcestoinformBoardmembersoftheirown viewsthatwerecontrarytopalmer s.theyfounditdifficulttoincreasetheirbase ofsupportwhentheboardwasnotinsession. Palmeralsousedherinfluencetoundermineanyone,notjustjournalists, thatmightputforthadifferentinterpretationofevents.suspiciousoftheisabellas, sheremainedcautiousinherdealingswiththeladymanagersthatshedidnot knowwell,nevergivingoutsensitiveinformationuntilshewasabsolutelysureof theirloyalties.allofthisintrigueservedtofurthercementpalmer spositionasthe Board sfigurehead,whichensuredgreatercontrolovertheboard sreputation. Knowingthatshewasapartofasingularmomentforwomen,Palmerjealously guardedthelegacythatwouldberecordedinhistoricalaccountsoftheexposition. SheencouragedtheLadyManagersthatsharedherideologicalbeliefstoferretout whichmembersoftheboardhadbeenwonoverbytheisabellas.tooneofher closestallies,palmerwrote, Inyourcorrespondencewithanyoftheladiesofourboardcanyoufindout whetherornottheyaremembersofthequeenisabellasocietywithout tellingthemthatiwishtoknow?ifyoushouldmentionitinafriendlyletter toanywithwhomyouaresufficientlyacquainted,andsendmetheresulting information,ishallbegreatlyobliged. 66 Thiswasaccomplishedthroughsubterfuge;Palmermarkedallofthis correspondenceconfidential,ratherthanrevealingherintenttodiscoverwhich BoardmemberswereaffiliatedwiththeIsabellas. 67 Sheoftenaccusedthe Associationof antagonizingtheboardofladymanagers andeveninherofficial 66BerthaPalmertoMrs.Shakespeare,February6,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 67BerthaPalmertoMrs.Cotton,August5,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

25 correspondence,heldallofitsmembersincontempt. 68 InPalmer sview,the Isabellasdidnotfulfilltheexpectationsforproperfemalebehavior,andasaresult, theyneededtobeputintheirplace. OncePalmerhadestablishedcompletepowerovertheactivitiesofthe Board,sheusedherinfluencetounderminetheachievementoftheIsabellas goals. EachtimeshementionedtheQueenIsabellaAssociationinhercorrespondence,her disdainandcontemptfortheirideologyandmethodsofraisingsupportare unmistakable.sheheldthemtobemorethanasimplenuisance;shebelievedthat theiractivitieswouldeventuallyleadtoareversalofthegainsthattheboardhad beenabletoachieve.inoneletter,palmergoessofarastosay, Idon'tknowthatI wouldquitefeelthatwecouldtrustanyonethatisorhasbeenamemberofthe IsabellaAssociation. 69 TheAmericangovernment sacknowledgementofthe abilitiesofwomeninthepublicspherewassignificant;berthapalmersoughtto protectthereputationoftheladiesoftheboardatwhatevercostnecessary.ifthis meanttheexclusionofthequeenisabellaassociationinallboardactivities,she wasmorethanwillingtouseherinfluencetounderminetheireverymove. Oneexampleofthiswillingnesstotakedrasticmeasurestounderminethe Isabellas influencewashersuccessfulattempttoremoveanymentionofthe IsabellasfromtheofficialhistoryoftheBoard.MaryNewburyAdamswas commissionedtowritetheofficialhistoryoftheboardforabooktobesoldduring theexposition;shegavethepublisherpermissiontochangeanythingthatpalmer 68BerthaPalmertoMrs.Chetlain,February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 69BerthaPalmertoMrs.Henrotin,ca.February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection, ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

26 didnotlike. 70 Whenitwasreadyforprinting,Adamswasabletoviewthe manuscriptinitsfinalformat.shewasshockedbythechangesthathadbeenmade. TheIsabellasandtheireffortswerecompletelyabsentfromthetext.She immediatelywrotetoberthapalmer,indicatingthatshebelievedthistobean injustice,nomatterhowbothersometheassociationhadbeen.palmerarguedthat theauxiliarywomenwere amuchfinerbodyofwomen thantheisabellasand that theymakemanyabsurdclaimswhichwouldmisleadanyonenotacquainted withthefacts. 71 SheindicatedthattherewasnoneedfortheIsabellastobe mentionedinthetext;theyhadcontributednothingtothesuccessesoftheboard, andhad,infact,impededitssuccessateveryturn. 72 Eventually,Adamsrequested thathernameberemovedfromthetextbecauseshefelttheworkhadlostits historicalintegrity. 73 ThisisonlyoneexampleofthewaysinwhichPalmersoughttocontrolthe flowofinformationtothepublicbyabusingherpositionofpoweraspresidentof theboard;theofficialminuteswerealsoeditedinasimilarfashion. 74 Thereare onlyahandfulofmentionsofthequeenisabellaassociationintheofficialminutes, despitethefactthatphoebecouzinswastheoriginalauthorofaboutonethirdof thedocument. 75 Thementionsthatarepresentaremerelyinvitationstosocial events;theseselectiveinclusionsmaketheisabellasappeartobelittlemorethana 70Weimann,70. 71BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,March27,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 72BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,March27,1892. 73BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,April4,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 74OfficialMinutesoftheBoardofLadyManagers,[ca.1891 1893],BoardofLadyManagers Collection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 75OfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagers.

27 socialclub,similartotheclubsthattheauxiliarywomencreatedforthemselves.it isnowonderthattheirorganizationhasdisappearedalmostentirelyfromthe historicaldiscourseontheexpositionandtheboardofladymanagers.the recordsthatarecommonlyconsultedtodeterminethehistoricalcontextandto betterunderstandtheeventsandideologiesoftheexpositionhavenoreferenceto theforgottenassociation.allofthiswascompletedinthenameofsavingthe Board sreputation. InanattempttofurthercementherpowerovertheBoard,Palmertookit uponherselftoinfluencethedecisionsofthecommissiondespitehersubordinate statustothatorganization. 76 Ironically,throughoutherdealingswithhermale superiors,palmerusesratheraggressivelanguage.whilespendinghertime criticizingandunderminingtheisabellasforadoptingamoreaggressiveapproach totheiractivism,palmerviolatesherownconservativevisionofproper womanhoodbyspeakingtohermalesuperiorsinaninsubordinatemanner.she adoptsamoremasculinemanagementstylewhileadvocatingallthewhilethat women sproperroleinsocietyistofulfilltheirrolesasnurturersandsupportersof theirstrongermalecounterparts.hertacticsarejustified,however,becauseshe believesherworkisfurtheringthestatusofwomeninamericansociety. MostofthementhathadbeennamedtotheDirectoryandtheCommission wereacquaintedwiththepalmers,orattheveryleastwerewellawareoftheir socialprominence.berthapalmerfrequentlyexploitedtheseconnectionstowin thesupportofthemendirectingtheadministrationoftheexposition.withthe 76BerthaPalmertoMr.Butler,February2,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

28 supportofthesemen,shewasabletoexertgreatauthorityincarryingouther plansfortheexposition.inoneletter,palmeracknowledgesacommissioner s authoritytoappointanotherladymanagerinlieuofonewhohaspassedaway. However,shespecificallywritesthelettertopressurehimintoappointing a worthysuccessor andtourgehimtoconcludethematterassoonaspossible.her toneiscertainlynotoneofasubordinaterequestingafavorofhersuperior;onthe contrary,shegivestheimpressionofhavingtheupperhand. 77 PalmerevenwentsofarastodictateproceduretoDanielBurnham,the ChiefArchitectoftheExposition.UponhearingthatBurnhamhadselectedan architectforthewoman sbuildingthatpalmerbelievedtobeunsuitable,she immediatelyconveyedherdispleasureandnotifiedhimofanalternateplan. Knowingthatshehadsignificantrelationshipswithmeninhighplaces,shecasually mentionedthat asthedirectors,commissionersandeveryoneelsefavorsour planandarewillingtoshowusthiscourtesy Ithinkthereshouldbenoquestion astotheresult. 78 Herproposalwasalmostimmediatelyadopted.Afteraseriesof similarpowerplays,thechicagonewsreportedthatthecommissionhadentrusted Palmer withalmostautocraticpower whentheboardwasnotinsession, authorizinghertomakeimportantdecisionsonbehalfofover100ladymanagers andtheiralternates. 79 77BerthaPalmertoMr.Butler,February2,1891. 78BerthaPalmertoJohnRoot,January13,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 79ChicagoNews,April4,1891,asquotedinWeimann,86.

29 TheQueenIsabellaPavilion AtthebeginningofFebruary1891,theIsabellas plansfortheirown pavilionontheexpositiongroundsappearedtobewellontheirwaytobecoming realized.includedintheirarchitecturalplanswereahospitalandakindergarten sothatallexpositionvisitorshadtheopportunitytoobservetwoofthemost popularprofessionsforwomen.therewerealsotobenumerousofficeand committeeroomstoserveasatemporaryheadquartersfor anydepartmentofart, science,literature,trade,oroccupation. 80 Theywerereadytomoveforwardwith theconstructionofthebuilding. TheofficersandothersignificantmembersoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation wereinvitedtodanielburnham sofficetoselectalocationfortheirpavilion. However,oncetheyhadselectedasite,theirrequestwasshuffledfromone committeeofmentoanother.eachcommitteeclaimedthattheylackedtheproper authoritytogranttherequest. 81 Ultimately,eachofthecommitteesdeclaredthat allproposalsconcerningwomenandwomen sworkweretobepassedthroughthe Board;uponhearingthis,theIsabellaswithdrewtheirrequest. 82 Becausethe Boardwasnotinsession,thedecisionwouldbeplacedinthehandsofBertha Palmer,whocontrolledtheday to dayaffairsinthesteadofthefullboard,oreven theboard sexecutivecommittee.theisabellashopedtopresenttheirrequestto 80QueenIsabellaPavilion,ca.1890 1891,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistorical Society. 81ReviewofWorld sfairwork,chicagodailytribune,february7,1891. 82PowerforLadyManagers,ChicagoDailyTribune,February5,1891.

30 theentireboardatthenextfullsession. 83 TheyrefusedtoallowPalmerthe satisfactionofdenyingtheirapplicationfortheisabellapavilionandhopedtofinda morefavorablereceptionoftheirproposalamongthemembersofthefullboard. InearlyMarch1891,rumorsstartedtocirculatethattheQueenIsabella Associationwasbankruptandcouldnotaffordtobuildthepromisedpavilion.The ChicagoTribunereported, whilethezealandenthusiasmoftheprojectorsare great,theavailablebuildingfundisamerebagatelleandthethousandsofdollars necessarytoconstructthepavilionarenotforthcoming. 84 Reportsaboundedthat theassociationhadbarelyenoughmoneytocontinueday to dayaffairsandthat theorganizationwasinsolvent. 85 ThepublicfaithintheAssociationwasshaken despitetheisabellas vehementdenialsofthisdirefinancialoutlookanda reassertionthattheisabellapavilionwouldbeconstructed. 86 Interestingly,BerthaPalmerappearstohavebeenthesourceofthese assertions;weeksbeforetherumorsappearedinthepublic,palmer s correspondencereflectedawarenessoftheisabellas supposedfinancialtroubles. 87 DuetothediscrepancybetweenthedatethatPalmerindicatedherknowledgeof thescandalandthedatewhenthenewswasrevealedthroughthemedia,itislikely thatpalmerherselfwasthesourceoftherumors. 88 Thisscandalmarkedthe beginningoftheassociation sdecline.withtheirreputationtarnished,theyhad 83WithdrawstheApplication,ChicagoDailyTribune,February13,1891. 84ItHasOnlythePlans,ChicagoDailyTribune,March6,1891. 85AccomplishedDuringtheWeek,ChicagoDailyTribune,March7,1891. 86TheQueenIsabellaAssociation,ChicagoDailyTribune,March20,1891. 87BerthaPalmertoMrs.Chetlain,February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 88BerthaPalmertoMrs.AugustusWilson,April9,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

31 verylittleinfluenceindetermininghowwoman sworkwouldberepresentedatthe Exposition. Inthefollowingmonths,theQueenIsabellaAssociationcontinuedtheir attemptstorebuildtheirreputation.theypersistedinsendingoutcirculars espousingloftygoalsofapermanentnetworkofwomenaidingoneanotherintheir struggleforequality. 89 TheAssociationalsopassedaresolutiondenyingrumors thattheisabellas intentionsweretoantagonizetheboard.theyarguedthatthey hadnothingtodowiththe unfortunatedissensionbetweenthechiefofficers and thattheyhad onlygoodwishesforthesuccessofallenterprisesundertakenbythe BoardofLadyManagers. 90 Thestatementassertedthatthoughtheydidnotseek toirritatetheboard,theywouldcontinuetopursuetheirowngoals,regardlessof theboard sstance.inassertingtheirrighttovoiceandadvancetheirownopinions, theisabellaswererejectingpalmer sinterpretationofproperwomanhoodas harmoniousandcompletelywithoutdiscord.instead,theypolitelyinsistedthatit wasappropriateandexpectedthatwomenwouldnotalwaysagreeonevery matter.theisabella sassertionthattheirbeliefswerejustasvalidasthoseheldby PalmercreatedevengreaterantagonismamongPalmer sallies,andthistradingof accusationsledtotheclimaxoftheconflictbetweenthetwogroups:thesecondfull meetingoftheboardofladymanagersonseptember2,1891. 89ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation,Untitled,[ca.1891],QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 90 ItIsDisposedtobePeaceful, ChicagoDailyTribune,April25,1891.