A Actor partner interdependence model, 313 Adolescents, 7, 8, 25 27, 30, 32, 33, 47, 49, 50, 108, 111, 120, 127, 163, 218, 243, 255, 261 273, 327, 343, 347, 349, 354, 362 Adoption, 11, 21, 39, 60, 71, 93, 109, 135, 150, 182, 197, 211, 227, 242, 263, 291, 308, 360 Adoptive families, 39 42, 46 52, 360 Advocacy, 100, 137, 168, 214, 254, 275 289, 302 Africa, 142, 210, 211, 217 221 African-American LGBT families, 211 Aging, 80, 177, 178, 184, 187, 188, 304 Alternative insemination, 138, 154, 310, 360 American Indian Two-Spirit parents, 138 ART. See Assisted reproductive technology (ART) Asian/Pacific Islander LGBT families, 134, 136 137 Assisted reproductive technology (ART), 73, 219, 298 B Bias, 26, 27, 32, 44, 68, 145, 241, 245, 246, 261, 275 279, 282, 284, 288 Biographical narrative interviews, 326, 334 Biological mothers, 27, 28, 215, 216, 245, 310, 311, 364 Biological relatedness, 27, 71, 76, 83 Biphobia, 96 Bisexual, 7, 22, 44, 60, 87, 105, 117, 133, 149, 163, 177, 193, 209, 225, 241, 261, 275, 325, 345, 361 Bisexuality, 88, 89, 91 93, 96 98, 101, 117, 124, 149, 184, 362 Border dwellers, 120 C Case studies, 113, 143, 213, 220, 328, 333, 339 Child adjustment, 344, 346 custody, 6, 89, 90, 98, 109, 123, 292 welfare, 44, 51, 88, 98, 246 Childfree, 59 69, 360 Childless, 59 69, 360 Childrearing, 33, 79, 138, 140, 144, 150, 241, 256 Children, 3, 21, 39, 59, 71, 93, 105, 117, 133, 149, 163, 177, 193, 209 221, 227, 241, 261 273, 275, 291, 310, 325, 343, 360 Chunde T women, 143 Citizenship, 67, 136, 137, 142, 145, 146, 197, 202, 242 Clinical practice, 137, 142 Clinical work, 241 257, 261 273 Clinicians, 4, 14, 72, 81, 83, 111, 187, 242, 256, 257, 261, 262, 267, 271 Cohort studies, 344 Collaborative parenting, 125 Coming out, 4, 7 9, 12, 14 16, 21, 33, 47, 62, 63, 71, 88, 96, 97, 105, 107 109, 113, 122, 163, 164, 167 169, 172, 173, 178, 179, 184 189, 194, 242 244, 248 250, 252, 253, 255, 261, 266, 267, 270 272, 334, 360 Communication privacy management (CPM), 121 Community climate, 196 197, 201, 203, 204, 279 Community programs and social services, 123 Comparative analysis, 348 Co-parent, 9, 23, 48, 83, 110, 135, 153, 216, 245, 291, 302 304 Coworkers, 50, 202, 225, 229 231 CPM. See Communication privacy management (CPM) Cross-cultural, 6, 209, 211, 212, 249, 350 Culture, 62, 92, 117, 119, 126 129, 139 142, 144, 153, 165, 169, 171, 179, 180, 183, 185, 187, 188, 209 211, 214, 216, 218 220, 228, 229, 243, 244, 246, 251, 273, 359 361 D Datasets, 321, 339, 340 Decision-making, 27 28, 59, 60, 64, 66 69, 71, 184, 252, 267, 271, 279, 280, 303, 326, 338 De facto parent, 300 303 De facto parentage, 302 Dependency, in data, 309 312, 319 Developmental outcomes, 5, 6, 16 Diaries, 154, 326, 327, 335 337 A.E. Goldberg and K.R. Allen (eds.), LGBT-Parent Families: Innovations in Research and Implications for Practice, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4556-2, Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 367
368 Index Disclosure, 8, 12, 46, 47, 94, 96 98, 107, 110, 118 121, 123, 126, 129, 168, 173, 181, 184 187, 189, 198, 202, 203, 218, 219, 225, 231, 233, 234, 253, 272, 296, 297, 362 Discrimination, 31, 41, 44, 46, 49, 92, 98, 99, 105 109, 112, 114, 122, 123, 141, 144, 163 165, 167, 169, 170, 178, 184, 197, 201 203, 212, 213, 219, 221, 225, 230, 232, 233, 245, 252, 254, 261, 263, 267 269, 272, 275 277, 346, 347, 365 Distinguishability, 310 311, 318 Distinguishable, 183, 308, 310 312, 314 318 Diversity, 6, 14, 16, 22, 29, 33, 50, 52, 68, 71, 75, 80, 100, 101, 105, 107, 114, 129 130, 133, 134, 139, 141 143, 145, 168, 170, 173, 177 180, 185 187, 189, 193 196, 201, 209, 213, 215, 217, 234, 244, 249, 280, 286, 288, 334, 337, 338, 350, 359 361, 364 Doing gender, 157 159 Donor insemination, 21 34, 43, 65, 74, 94, 154, 182, 215, 216, 244 246, 257 Donor status, 22, 29, 30 Drawings, 4, 6, 63, 74, 96, 106, 120, 138, 140, 143, 144, 149, 231, 315, 327, 330 Dyad(s), 307, 308, 310 320 Dyadic, 307 321, 333 E Eastern Europe, 216 Education systems, 144 Egalitarian parenting, 138, 154, 246 Egg donor, 71, 74, 76 79, 81, 83, 251, 271 Emotion maps, 327, 335 337 Essentialism, 92, 218, Ethnomethodology, 151 Everyday life, 150, 151, 156, 158, 329, 333 Expectant fathers, 72 Extended family network, 15 External stigmatization, 122, 128 External surveillance, 118, 122 F Family building, 92, 241 246, 250, 257, 281, 287, 363 contexts, 110, 112 diversity, 244, 288 formation, 59, 72, 106, 108, 112, 114, 133, 134, 137, 138, 141, 145, 146, 295, 299, 300, 340, 360 functioning, 21, 41, 46, 48, 49, 51, 309, 317, 325 law, 82, 292 293, 295, 300 life cycle, 242 244 processes, 14, 110, 138 relationships, 5 sexuality, 325, 335, 336, 338 tasks, 23, 24 therapy, 254, 264, 266, 267 Female-to-male (FTM), 105 108, 112, 152, 170, 171 Femininity, 28, 106, 149, 151, 155 158, 228 Feminism, 14, 60, 72, 138, 360 Feminist theory, 72 Feminist therapy, 72 Focus group research, 151 Foster care, 21, 40, 51, 60, 64, 69, 135, 140, 141, 150, 153, 157 158, 245, 247, 248, 251, 252 FTM. See Female-to-male (FTM) Functional parent, 72 G Gay fathering, 71, 359 Gay fathers, 4, 33, 46, 60, 71, 134, 151, 167, 181, 218, 317, 350, 359 Gay grandfathers, 181, 184, 185, 188, 362 Gay meccas, 193 Gender attribution, 151 development, 5, 6, 26, 46, 47, 149, 150, 155, 159, 165 166, 254 identi fi cation, 29, 105, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 165, 170, 254 identity, 28, 105 113, 149, 150, 154, 155, 158, 164, 165, 168 172, 197, 216, 225, 243, 244, 252 255, 275, 276, 282, 283, 285 287, 344, 346, 362, 364 nonconformity, 152, 164 normativities, 150 role, 5, 8, 26 27, 31, 47, 107, 110, 149, 151 158, 165, 199, 214 217, 226, 228, 243, 246, 247, 255, 264, 275, 278, 288, 361 Generalizability, 32, 346, 348 Genetic surrogacy, 73 Geographical diversity, 193 196 Geographical regions, 113 Geographic location, 61, 64, 68, 106, 244 Gestational surrogacy, 73, 74, 82, 300 Global change, 209 Grandchildren, 77, 139, 177 189, 195 Grandparent grandchild relationship, 177 181, 183 189 Grandparenting, 178 186, 188, 362 Group marriage, 117, 124 H Health, 13, 26, 27, 43, 45, 46, 51, 59, 65, 66, 73, 74, 76, 83, 87 91, 93, 94, 99 100, 108, 109, 112 113, 117 123, 126 129, 135, 152, 163, 177, 196 200, 202 204, 212, 225, 232, 233, 243, 246, 254, 257, 270, 294, 298, 310, 311, 316, 338, 343 350 Health services, 88, 99, 118, 126, 129, 338 Heteronormative, 74, 78, 95, 106 107, 112, 117, 125, 142, 149 151, 156, 157, 164, 166, 172, 173, 180 181, 212 214, 217, 219, 221, 243, 246, 257, 270, 331, 349 Heteronormativity, 146, 169, 172, 209, 212, 216 219 Heterosexism, 8, 43, 47, 60, 97, 99, 134, 146, 169, 189, 200, 202, 219, 226, 230, 270 272, 343, 346
Heterosexual couples, 10, 23, 28, 40, 42, 43, 45 49, 65, 78, 79, 82, 112, 229, 244, 245, 253, 257, 279, 292, 307, 308, 310, 314, 315, 317, 327, 362 Heterosexual privilege, 92, 93, 99, 109, 112 Household space, 127, 152, 194, 218, 285, 327, 336 I Immigration, 136, 137, 139, 146 Indistinguishability, 308 Indistinguishable, 140, 292, 308, 311 318, 320, 329 Inequality, 81, 135, 141, 150, 212, 217, 233 Intentional LGBTQ families, 166 Intentional parenting, 68, 69 Interaction(s), 10, 14, 24, 29, 32, 40, 41, 43, 45, 48 50, 60, 63, 72, 77, 92, 110, 122, 129, 150, 155, 164, 197, 198, 202, 204, 219, 227, 228, 261, 269, 277, 308, 314, 318, 327, 335, 336 Interactionism, 60, 72 Intergenerational relationships, 177, 179, 187, 189, 361 362 Internalized homophobia, 46, 60, 62, 75, 158, 165, 169, 196, 198, 199, 219, 232, 242, 257, 268, 269, 271 International contexts, 133, 134, 142, 145 Intersectionality, 4, 72, 106, 113, 134, 146, 172, 188, 196, 232 234, 361 Interventions, 40, 281 282 Intimacy, 46, 110, 122, 125, 142, 220, 244, 325 328, 332, 333, 335 339 Intraclass correlation (ICC), 311, 312 Invisibility, 91, 92, 96, 99, 100, 118, 121, 122, 182, 187, 221, 225, 241, 304, 362 In vitro fertilization (IVF), 73, 138, 219 Israel, 24, 214 216 K K-12 school environments, 277 L Lala identified women, 143 Large scale secondary datasets, 343 Latin America, 212, 214 Latino/a LGBT families, 251 Law, 10, 27, 39, 41, 50, 51, 82, 118, 137, 145, 146, 150, 185, 198, 203, 212, 213, 215, 216, 283, 291 304, 340 Legal, 3, 22, 41, 64, 72, 98, 105, 118, 142, 157, 164, 181, 196, 209, 241, 263, 282, 291, 361 climate, 46, 197 199, 217, 282, 364 intervention, 282 issues, 72, 81 82, 257, 292, 299, 300 parent, 11, 22, 41, 82, 109, 248, 263, 291 303 parentage, 82, 291, 293, 295, 301 Lesbian/gay umbrella, 93 Lesbian grandmothers, 181 184, 187 369 LGBT grandparents, 178 179, 181, 185 189, 359, 362 LGBTQ activism, 200, 203 community, 169, 172, 193 195, 199, 200, 203, 204, 241, 256, 257, 268 families post-heterosexual divorce, 3 16 parenting, 359, 360 umbrella, 241 workers, 249 young adults, 164, 168, 244 youth, 163 173, 244 LGBTQ-friendly employment benefits, 234 LGBTQ-friendly medical and legal services, 81 Life course theory, 4, 308, 309 Limitations, 6, 22, 32 33, 119, 141, 142, 153, 157, 165, 198, 202, 300, 319 320, 333, 347, 361 363 Listening to children, 328 332 Longitudinal, 24 27, 31 33, 51, 60, 68, 150, 197 199, 229, 269, 277, 308, 314 316, 319, 320, 343, 344, 347, 348, 350 M Male role models, 6, 30 31, 140, 154, 219, 332 Male-to-female (MTF), 170 Masculinity, 106, 151 153, 155, 156, 195, 213, 228, 252, 333 Mati work, 142 Measurement, 4, 13, 145, 317, 345 347 Media representations, 92, 126 Methodological challenges, 363 Minority group identity, 193, 268 Minority stress, 196 199, 231 232, 234, 269, 346 Minority stress theory, 196, 197, 269 Monosexism, 92 Motherhood, 5, 6, 8, 15, 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 83, 100, 138, 139, 144, 145, 152, 153, 156, 157, 182 184, 212 218, 221, 229, 246, 253, 254, 256, 326, 332 334, 337, 360 MTF. See Male-to-female (MTF) Multilevel modeling (MLM), 307 321, 363 Multiple informants, 308, 317 318 Multiple minority status, 138, 141 Multiracial families, 141, 280 N Narrative therapy, 242, 249, 255, 264, 271 National datasets, 13 National surveys, 27, 39, 42, 89, 94, 182, 188, 202, 345 346 New kinship structures, 125 Nonbiological mothers, 22, 27 29, 33, 77, 247, 310, 311 Nonmetropolitan areas, 81, 193 195, 204 Nonmonogamy, 124, 127 Non-Western, 125, 143, 144, 209 221, 359, 361
370 Index O Observations, 4, 24, 29, 32, 45, 47, 49, 50, 140, 154, 156, 214, 243, 326 328, 332, 333 Oddfather, 125 Oddmother, 125 Older adults, 177, 179, 185 187 P Parenthood, 3, 7, 8, 11 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 31, 34, 42 43, 45 46, 49, 51, 60 62, 67, 68, 71 76, 78, 80 83, 90, 108 113, 143, 145, 198, 212 214, 216 217, 230, 233, 244, 245, 250 253, 255, 256, 261, 268, 293 295, 297, 302, 310, 315 317, 325, 326, 328 330, 333, 338, 361, 362, 364 Parenthood motives, 23 Parenting agreement, 301 Parenting decision-making processes, 60, 64, 66, 68, 69 Parenting stress, 48 Participatory methods, 328 332, 335, 336 Partner effects, 313 314 Passing, 99, 109, 121 122, 128, 154 Photo elicitation, 326, 328, 338 339 Policy, 22, 39, 41, 49 51, 69, 72, 82 83, 88, 89, 98, 122, 129, 135, 136, 142, 145, 146, 179, 282, 283, 286, 287, 337, 349, 365 Political, 10, 41, 72, 78, 94, 100, 120, 125, 144, 146, 150, 159, 169, 196, 199, 200, 203, 204, 209, 212 217, 225, 243, 253, 256, 292, 297 Political climate, 134, 144, 199 201, 217 Polyamory, 93, 117 119, 122 124, 126 128 Polyfamily, 117 119, 122 129 Polyfidelity, 117, 128 Polyparenting, 117 129 Population studies, 33, 68, 145, 172 Poster-child mentality, 122 123 Programs advocacy, 275 287 school, 275 287 Prospective parenting, 41, 43 44, 51, 73, 74, 77, 135, 241 257, 292, 295, 296 Psychosocial adjustment, 39, 268, 349 Psychosocial approach, 334 Q Qualitative mixed methods (QMM), 325 328, 332, 333, 335, 339, 340 Queer, 15, 88, 97, 99, 100, 106, 108, 111, 113, 114, 117, 118, 127, 134, 141, 151, 158, 163 165, 167 173, 209, 211, 242, 243, 245, 246, 248, 252, 256, 257, 291, 325, 329, 332, 338, 339, 347 Queer theory, 12, 15, 16, 106, 256 R Race, 14, 26, 33, 43, 59 64, 66 68, 71, 75, 77, 78, 81, 83, 97, 101, 106, 112 114, 119, 129 130, 133 146, 170, 172, 179, 180, 186, 188, 194 196, 209, 212, 219, 232, 233, 242 244, 248, 250, 263, 264, 280, 283, 287, 346, 350, 360, 361 Race and class privilege, 59, 68, 113, 119, 361 Racial disparities, 135, 137 Racial minority same-sex couples, 134 137, 141, 146, 195 Relational therapy, 112, 242 Religion, 200, 201, 209, 212 214, 219, 242 244, 248, 280, 294, 303, 346 Religious climate, 200 201 Representative samples, 13, 166, 349, 354, 364 Reproductive decision-making, 75 Reproductive outsourcing, 72, 81 Reproductive technologies, 21, 22, 60, 65, 66, 71 73, 77, 78, 80, 83, 144, 145, 213, 217, 219, 245, 298, 360 Residential community, 193, 195 197, 199, 201, 204 Role theory, 155, 156, 227, 230 Rural, 113, 114, 128, 135, 142, 143, 193, 195, 196, 203, 244, 277, 349, 361 S Safer school climate, 283, 286, 287 Same-sex couples, 28, 41 43, 45, 50, 60, 82, 95, 109, 122, 123, 135 138, 163, 177 178, 193 195, 197, 198, 200 203, 212, 213, 215, 229, 232, 241, 244, 245, 257, 279, 282, 284 285, 292 293, 297, 300, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312, 344 351, 359, 360, 362, 363 Same-sex marriage, 9, 22, 31, 94, 109, 135, 136, 146, 181, 198 200, 203, 241 Same-sex parent households with children, 349 Same-sex partner households with children, 193 195 School climate, 202 203, 275, 276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 284, 286, 287 communities, 122, 124, 275 278, 283 286 School-based interventions, 281 286 Secondary data, 168, 170, 343, 345 351 Secondary datasets, 345, 348 Second generation, 163 173, 362 Second-parent, 41, 263, 295, 301, 302 Second-parent adoption, 11, 41, 73, 82, 83, 197, 263, 296, 298, 300 302 Self-esteem, 7, 26, 30, 40, 62, 80, 88, 122, 127, 169, 201, 228, 254, 268, 272 Self-monitoring, 123 Semi-structured interviews, 32, 185, 230, 328, 332 Sex role, 155, 156, 159, 246 Sexual behavior, 3, 6, 26 27, 91, 96, 167, 346, 361
Sexual identity, 3, 6, 9, 14, 15, 46, 60, 62, 63, 69, 88, 93, 95 97, 99, 133, 150, 164, 166, 169, 171, 181, 187, 201, 210, 213, 225, 230, 231, 233, 234, 241, 249, 292, 330, 331, 344 347 Sexuality, 3, 6, 8 9, 14, 16, 59, 60, 68, 71, 72, 88 91, 101, 106, 118, 121, 133 139, 141, 142, 145, 146, 149, 153, 156, 158, 159, 164 166, 171, 184, 186, 187, 196, 209 214, 220, 225, 232, 244, 246, 247, 249, 250, 254, 256, 263, 264, 270, 272, 294, 325 328, 330 333, 335, 336, 338, 339, 363 Sexual-maternal identity, 332 333 Sexual minority parenting, 72, 75, 83, 134, 135, 137, 142 146 Sexual orientation, 3, 4, 6, 13, 15, 16, 27, 32, 33, 41, 42, 44 49, 73, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94 96, 98 100, 108, 111, 112, 138, 145, 146, 151, 153, 164 173, 178 179, 181 189, 194, 197, 201 204, 210, 211, 216 219, 225, 230, 232, 242 244, 246, 249, 254, 263, 265, 267 270, 272, 273, 275, 276, 278, 282 287, 314, 329, 344, 346, 349, 360 363 Sexual orientation development, 167 Shared child-rearing, 28, 125 126 Social class, 13, 71, 81, 117, 137, 154, 172, 180, 188, 194, 195, 245, 268 269, 314, 350, 359, 360, 365 Social constructionist theory, 92 Socialization theory, 156 Social justice, 100, 129 130, 243 Social mothers, 22, 23, 216 217, 364 Social parent, 293, 294, 302, 303 Social parentage, 83, 251, 291, 293 Social support, 46, 69, 90, 99, 107, 110 114, 187 188, 196, 198, 199, 216, 219, 225 226, 230, 244, 272, 311, 312 South Africa, 217 220 South America, 210, 212, 214 Sperm donor, 78, 144, 247, 251, 262, 263, 271 Stepparenting, 3, 12, 250, 251 Stigma, 7, 8, 12, 45, 79, 107, 108, 122, 159, 166, 194, 196 198, 203, 204, 211, 212, 221, 230 232, 234, 246, 255 256, 261, 268, 269, 271 273 Stigma theory, 230 232 Stigmatization, 10, 12, 22, 29, 31 33, 108, 114, 118, 122, 124, 128, 151, 154, 166, 204, 211, 212, 221, 233, 263, 268 272 Students, 72, 202, 256, 276 288, 312, 320 Support networks, 59 61, 63 65, 107, 113 Supports, 10, 12, 25, 28, 32, 44 46, 51, 59 61, 63 65, 69, 80 82, 88, 90, 93 96, 98 99, 107, 110 114, 117 119, 122, 125 130, 136, 138 140, 146, 157, 164, 165, 167, 169, 172, 173, 183 184, 186 188, 193, 194, 196, 198 203, 216, 219, 225 226, 228 231, 233, 234, 242, 244, 246 249, 251, 253, 254, 257, 270 272, 276, 279, 281, 283 287, 294, 297, 303, 310 312, 349, 360 Surrogacy, 63, 65, 71 83, 245, 250 252, 255, 299 301, 362 Surrogate mother, 71 74, 76 81, 178 Surveys, 5, 8, 11, 13, 21 22, 27, 39, 42, 63, 89, 93, 94, 119 120, 123, 126, 134 137, 182, 188, 197, 199 202, 225, 228, 343 347, 349 351, 363 Symbolic interactionist theory, 308 309 Systems therapy, 242 371 T Takatapui women, 144 Therapists, 110, 111, 126, 242, 246 250, 252 257, 261, 262, 264 267, 270 273, 363 Therapy, 112, 126, 242, 245 255, 262, 264 267, 271 273, 363 Traditionalist (culture), 213 216, 219 220 Transfeminist therapy, 242, 255 Transgender, 51, 68, 91, 95, 105 114, 117, 133, 134, 143, 149 159, 163, 170, 171, 177 189, 209, 211, 221, 241, 242, 244, 252 254, 275, 287, 291, 297, 325, 345, 346, 351, 362, 363 Transitioning, 105, 106, 109 113, 253, 254 Transnational adoption, 83, 140 Transphobia, 105, 108, 242, 244, 254 255, 275, 281 282 Transracial adoption, 40, 42, 43, 46, 48, 50, 140 141 Treatment approaches, 142, 338 U Urban, 43, 64, 113, 127, 128, 154, 193 195, 203, 217, 246, 277, 349 V Variability, 28, 180, 187, 231, 232, 309, 310, 312, 316, 319, 346, 347 Variance, 137 139, 146, 179, 187, 307, 309, 311 313, 315 319 Vignettes, 219, 247, 256, 262 267, 272, 326, 328, 338 339 Visual methods, 329 W Westernized, 209 211, 213, 218, 219 White racial privilege, 134 Work-family balance, 233, 234 Work-family conflict, 226 230, 232 Work-family interface, 226 230, 232 234 Workplace, 152, 187, 196, 201 203, 225 234, 361 Workplace climate, 201 203