Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition

Transcription

1 Butler University Digital Butler University Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection Undergraduate Scholarship Spring Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition Lauren Alexander Maxwell Butler University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Maxwell, Lauren Alexander, "Constructions of Femininity: Women and the World's Columbian Exposition" (2009). Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Undergraduate Scholarship at Digital Butler University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection by an authorized administrator of Digital Butler University. For more information, please contact omacisaa@butler.edu.

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3 ConstructionsofFemininity: WomenandtheWorld'sColumbianExposition AThesis PresentedtotheDepartmentofHistory CollegeofLiberalArtsandSciences and TheHonorsProgram of ButlerUniversity InPartialFulfillment oftherequirementsforgraduationhonors LaurenAlexanderMaxwell March20,2009

4 1 Introduction Contents 1 TheQueenIsabellaAssociation 6 TheChicagoWomen sauxiliary 8 TheBoardofLadyManagers 9 FirstMeetingoftheBoard 16 ThePhoebeCouzinsAffair 20 PalmerConsolidatesHerPowers 22 TheQueenIsabellaPavilion 29 SecondMeetingoftheBoard 32 TheCongressofWomen 34 Conclusion 37 Bibliography 40

5 1 Introduction Asearlyas1885,prominentAmericansweresuggestingaWorld sfair commemoratingthequadro CentennialofColumbus discoveryofthenewworld. EachofthemajorAmericancitiesclamoredforthehonorofhostingthisexposition. Chicagowasonlyoneofthecompetitorsandwasnotsureitwouldsucceedin winningthecovetedprize. 1 WhenprominentChicagomenfoundedtheWorld s FairCorporationtosecuretheExpositionforthemselves,thecity sprofessional womenwereequallydeterminedtocontribute.consequently,onaugust17,1889, civic mindedwomenincorporatedthequeenisabellaassociationinthecityof Chicago.TheirgoalsweretoerectastatueinhonorofQueenIsabellaofCastile, acknowledgingherasthe codiscovererofthenewworld, andtobuildapavilion forlarge scalemeetingsofwomen. 2 Severalmonthslater,inOctober1889,another organization,thechicagowomen sauxiliary,wasestablished.thisgroupof womenhadthreegoals:theerectionofawoman sbuilding,adiscussionofcharity andphilanthropicwork,andfinally,tohelpchicago sbusinessmensellsharesin thechicagofaircorporation. 3 Fromtheoutset,thesetwogroupsdisagreedonthe purposeandscopeofwomen sinvolvementintheexposition.theisabellashoped toadvancethecauseofwomen ssuffrageandequalrightswhiletheauxiliary 1Foreaseofunderstanding,the World scolumbianexpositionof1893 willbereferredto throughoutassimply theexposition. Theeventwasalsocommonlyreferredtoasthe Chicago World sfair, whichisdemonstratedinmanyofthenamesofinvolvedorganizations.theboardof LadyManagersreferencesthebodyofwomenappointedtooverseewomen sworkatthe Exposition.Theother,allmale,organizationsinvolvedwiththeplanningoftheExpositionwere similarlystructured,andwerealsocalled boards. However,forthepurposesofthispaper,the BoardofLadyManagers willbereferredtothroughoutassimply theboard. 2Untitled,[ca ],QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety 3JeanneWeimann,TheFairWomen(Chicago:AcademyChicago,1981),27.

6 2 womenwerefocusedonphilanthropy. 4 WhenCongressfinallyawardedthe ExpositiontoChicagoinAprilof1890,thefoundationwaslaidforconflictamong thewomenofchicago. ThewomenoftheQueenIsabellaAssociationweretheembodimentofwhat hasbeentermedthe NewWoman. WhiletheNewWomanwasanamalgamationof manydifferenttrends,historiansagreethatshe representsoneofthemost significantculturalshiftsofthelatenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies. 5 These womenchoseto movebeyonddomesticity andfoughttobecomeequalmembers ofamericansociopoliticallife. 6 JoanneMeyerowitzarguesthattheirgreater significancewasthetendencyofthenewwomanto challengethedominant Victoriansexualethos. 7 Sheinsertedherselfintothepublicsphereonherown terms,withouttheprotectionofthepatriarchalfamilystructure.thenewwoman waseducatedandsophisticated;shealsofrequentlyheldaprofessionaljob,a practicethatwasstillratherrevolutionaryattheopeningoftheexpositionin1893. TheprofessionalwomenofChicagoalsoprovideawindowforunraveling thecomplexroleofwomenintheindustrialcityattheturnofthecentury.thisis especiallytrueinthecityofchicago,wherewomentookanactiveroleinmunicipal affairsbeginningintheyearsfollowing1871,theyearofthegreatchicagofire. 8 Upperandmiddle classwomenusedtheirreformorganizationsandsocialcloutto 4Weimann, MarthaH.Patterson,TheAmericanNewWomanRevisited:AReader, (NewBrunswick, NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2008),1. 6JoanneJ.Meyerowitz,WomenAdrift:IndependentWageEarnersinChicago, (Chicago: TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1988),xvii. 7Meyerowitz,xix. 8MaureenA.Flanagan,SeeingwithTheirHearts:ChicagoWomenandtheVisionoftheGoodCity (Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2002),58.

7 3 constructthecityasaplacethatallowedforwomen sautonomy.inchicago, womenbecameanimportantpartofthecity ssocialfabric,castingthemselvesas municipalhousekeepersandworkingtoensurethecitymaintainedawelcoming urbanculture. 9 WhilehistorianshavepaidampleattentiontothedevelopmentoftheNew WomanandwomeninthedevelopmentofurbanChicago,theyhavebeenless concernedwiththeparticipationofwomeninthecolumbianexposition. 10 Despite thislandmarkeventinamericanhistory,historianshavelargelyignoredgenderin theexposition. 11 Whilewomen sandgenderhistoriesareontheirwayto becomingasignificantpartofthemasternarrativeoftheexposition,mostofthese workshavetreatedwomenasaunifiedgroup.noneofthemhaveexaminedin detailtheconflictsbetweenthewomenthemselves,andhowananalysisofthis conflictcontributesthelargerdiscussionofthedefinitionofproperwomanhoodin theperiod. 9Flanagan,57. 10Forfurtherdiscussiononwomen surbanculture,seemeyerowitz,womenadrift;kathypeiss, CheapAmusements:WorkingWomenandLeisureinTurn of the CenturyNewYork(Philadelphia: TempleUniversityPress,1986);SharonWood,FreedomoftheStreets:Work,Citizenship,and SexualityinaGildedAgeCity(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005);Victoria Wolcott,RemakingRespectability:AfricanAmericanWomeninInterwarDetroit(ChapelHill,NC: UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001). 11NumeroussourceshaveexaminedtheExpositionitself;itsarchitecture,exhibits,andcongresses capturedthepublic simaginationandprovidedvastresourcesforhistoricalstudy.seerobert Knutson, TheWhiteCity:theWorld scolumbianexpositionof1893 (PhDdiss.,Columbia University,1956);TitusKarlowicz, TheArchitectureoftheWorld scolumbianexposition (PhD diss.,northwesternuniversity,1965);donaldl.miller,cityofthecentury:theepicofchicagoand themakingofamerica(newyork:simon&schusterpaperbacks,1996);eriklarson,thedevilinthe WhiteCity:Murder,Magic,andMadnessattheFairThatChangedAmerica(NewYork:Crown Publishers,2003).Ofthesehistorians,onlyLarsonincludesanydiscussionofthewomeninvolved intheplanningoftheexposition.eventhen,allofthecreditforthewomen seffortsgoestodaniel Burnham,theChiefArchitectoftheExposition,despitethefactthatwomenproducedthemost successfulexhibit,thewoman sbuilding.

8 4 JeanneWeimann sthefairwomen,thefirstmajorworkthatfocusedonthe contributionsofwomenintheplanningoftheexposition,didnotappearuntil Weimannoffersadetailedaccountoftheworkofwomenbefore,during, andaftertheexpositionandilluminatesmanyoftheconflictsthatensuedinthe planningandexecutionoftheirresponsibilities.hernarrativeprovidesadetailed accountofthefactionsthatexistedwithintheboardofladymanagersandthe sourcesoftheircompetingideologies.whilethisworkchroniclestheevents leadinguptotheexposition,itfailstomakeacoherenthistoricalargument concerningtheactivitiesoftheboard. JaneHomsherusestheBoardofLadyManagersattheColumbianExposition todiscussfemaleidentityintheperiodandthewaysinwhichitinfluencedcultural values. 13 Byexploitingsocietalbeliefsaboutwomen sinnatemorality,chicago s womeninsertedthemselvesintothepublicspherethroughsocialreformwork. 14 Shediscusseshowfemininitywasunderstoodintheperiod,andattheColumbian Expositionmorespecifically,andhowwomencapitalizedontheirfemininerolesas ajustificationfortheirexpandedinvolvementinmunicipallife. CharleneGarfinkleexaminestheembodimentofwomen sparticipationat theexpositionthroughananalysisoftheculturalsignificanceofthewoman s Building,statingthat neverhadwoman sparticipationbeensoconspicuous, 12TheinterestinexploringtheroleofwomenintheExpositionemergedfromthefieldofwomen s history,duetothesecondwaveofthefeministmovementintheprecedingtwodecades. 13JaneElizabethRomanoHomsher, TheGeniusofLiberty,CulturalMotherhoodattheWorld s ColumbianExposition,Chicago,1893 (PhDdiss.,SanFranciscoStateUniversity,1994),7. 14Homsher,26.

9 5 important,orcompleteasatthechicagoworld scolumbianexpositionof Throughanexaminationofthebuildingdécor,Garfinklemaintains thewomenof 1893werenotinterestedinreplacingtheirrolesofwifeandmotherwiththatof careerwoman. 16 Inthis,shefailstorecognizethatherdiscussionappliesonlyto thesmallgroupofwomenthatdirectedtheconstructionanddecorationofthe Woman sbuilding.herdiscussionisonlyaglimpseintotheideologyofthewomen chargedwithexhibitingwomen swork. Morerecently,MaryCordatodiscussedthedifferentrepresentationsof women sworkatthemajoramericanexpositionsin1876,1893,and CordatotracesatendencyinthethreeExpositionstomoveclosertoaviewof equalityofmenandwomen.cordato sanalysisparallelsthedevelopmentofthe NewWoman,asshemovesfromararitytoafixtureinAmericanlife. Thesegenderhistorianshavebeguntheexplorationofhowwomen s identityisdefinedinchicagoattheturnofthecentury.theywereactive participantsinchicagomunicipallifeandtheiractionsweredeterminedbytheway inwhichtheythoughtabouttheiridentitiesaswomen.however,thereisa tendencytotreatthewomenofchicagoasaunifiedentity;therearenodistinctions drawnbetweendifferentvisionsofhowthenewwomanshouldbedefined.in reality,therewerecompetingvisionsofthenewwomanandhowsheinteracted withthecityaroundher.anexaminationofthecolumbianexpositionoffersan 15CharleneG.Garfinkle, WomenatWork:TheDesignandDecorationoftheWoman sbuildingat the1893world scolumbianexposition Architecture,ExteriorSculpture,StainedGlass,and InteriorMurals (PhDdiss.,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,1996),20. 16Garfinkle, WomenatWork, MaryF.Cordato, RepresentingtheExpansionofWoman ssphere:women sworkandcultureat theworld sfairsof1876,1893,and1904 (PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,1981),15 16.

10 6 opportunitytoexaminethesourceofdifferentvisionsofwomanhoodandhowone visionismarginalizedinfavorofanother.theexpositionalsoallowsan examinationofwomen scultureinthecityofchicago;inthiscity,women s involvementinmunicipalaffairsisnotsporadic.thecolumbianexpositionisa uniquesettingtoexaminethedifferentvisionsofwomanhoodinurbanspaces. TheQueenIsabellaAssociation TheQueenIsabellaAssociationwasaggressiveintheircampaignto representwomen sinterestsintheexposition;theydecidednottoconfinetheir effortstochicagoandchosetoestablishbranchesoftheirassociationinother cities.byallowingparticipationintheassociationtowomeninothercities,the Isabellasestablishedawidercircleofinfluenceandincreasedthechancesof achievingtheirgoals.theyopenedchaptersinnewyork,washingtond.c.,andst. Louis,creatinganorganizednationalAssociation. 18 Notonlydidthisaction guaranteeabroaderbaseofsupportfortheirgoals,butalsounderminedthe attemptsofrivalcitiestowintheexposition.chicagowasinheatedcompetition withnewyork,st.louis,andwashington,d.c.toserveastheexposition shost, andifwomeninthosecitiesarguedforachicagolocation,itgreatlyincreasedthe chancesofchicago ssuccesswhilediminishingthechancesofrivalcities. Immediately,theycommencedaccumulatingfinancialsupportfortheirproposed 18 HonorDueToIsabella, ChicagoDailyTribune,March3,1890.

11 7 statue.aftercommissioningthesculptorharriethosmertocreatethestatue,they startedsellingsharesforthestatueimmediatelyaftertheirincorporation. 19 TheIsabellas effortsrepresentedalesstraditionalviewofwomen srolein society,andspecificallythemeaningofwomen swork.ratherthanassumingthat womenwereonlyintheworkforcetemporarily,theisabellasbelievedthat women sworkcouldbeasignificantandlifelongendeavor.theassociationtended toattractprimarilymiddle class,educatedwomenthatwerequalifiedtoworkina professionalfield. 20 Thesewomenweremoreapttochooseacareerthatrequired aneducationoverwagework,atrendthatwasinitsbeginningstagesin1890. Frequently,theywereadvocatesforwomen ssuffrageandpoliticalrightsequalto thoseoftheirmalepeers.theisabellaswerethereforeunique;theyoftenmade choicesthatwereconsideredabnormalbysocietyatlarge.theirorganization servednotjustasanimpermanentorganizationalbodyfortheone timeeventof theexposition,butasasupportnetworkforthosewomenwhoweresimilarly pursuingaprofessionalcareer. 21 ThenewlyformedQueenIsabellaAssociationwasareadilyrecognizable organizationamongcitizensofchicagobymarchof1890.theirlong termgoalwas toestablishtheassociationpermanently;theyanticipatedthattheirmeetings duringtheexpositionwouldturnintoaninternational unionofworkersin 19Untitled,May11,1891,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 20Untitled,ca.1890,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety.The Associationalsoattractedsmallnumbersofworking classwomenthathadameasureoffinancial independence.becausethepriceofmembershipwassetatonedollarandashareinthestatueat fivedollars,mostworking classwomenwereunabletoaffordthenecessaryfees. 21ProposedPlanfortheInternationalCongressoftheMedicalDepartmentoftheQueenIsabella Association,tobeheldinChicago,U.S.A.,in1893,ca.1892,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets, ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

12 8 professions,tradesandoccupationsoflife,whoextendahelpinghandtothosein searchofadviceorinformation. 22 Inofferingthesesupportnetworksto professionalandworkingwomen,theisabellastendedtobemuchmoreradical thanwasreadilyacceptableinamericansocietyatthetime.theydidnotbelieve thattheirrolesinsocietywerelimitedtobeingdaughters,wives,andmothers,but insteadtheyweresomeofthefirstwomentopursueprofessionalcareers. ChicagoWomen sauxiliary WhiletheIsabellasincreasedtheirnationalmembership,theAuxiliaryhad nopressingneedtoestablishanetworkofsupport.theauxiliaryhadthe advantageoftiestoprominentchicagoestablishments,throughwomen sclubs, philanthropyworkorthewealthandpoliticalconnectionsoftheirhusbands.the AuxiliaryofficeswerelocatedinthesamebuildingastheofficesoftheWorld sfair Corporation. 23 Thiscloseproximityfacilitatedastrongconnectionbetweenthe AuxiliarywomenandtheprominentmeninvolvedinbringingtheExpositionto Chicago,whichdidnotbodewellfortheIsabellas. Ingeneral,theAuxiliarywomenheldsociallyconservativeviews,especially inregardtowomenasworkers.thesewomenbelievedthatanywoman s excursionintothepublicrealmofsocietyshouldbeanextensionoftheir 22ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation,Untitled,[ca.1891],QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 23Weimann,30.

13 9 traditional,nurturingroles.theauxiliarywomenwerewealthy,andtherefore spenttheirtimeengaginginphilanthropicactivitiesinsteadofworkingtosupport themselves.mostofthesewomenhadreceivedsomedegreeofeducation,butthey employedtheirknowledgeverydifferentlyfromtheisabellas.overwhelmingly,the Auxiliarywomenbelievedthattheyweretoplayasupportingroletotheir husbandsandtheircontributionsdemonstratedaconservativeviewofappropriate activitiesforwomen.foryears,thesewomenhadbeeninvolvedinprominent women sclubsinchicago,participatingineffortstoremedytheimmoralityand inherentfilthofthecity.theirinvolvementwiththeauxiliaryextendedtheirwork asmoralreformersandphilanthropistsintothepoliticalrealm. TheBoardofLadyManagers OnApril25,1890PresidentBenjaminHarrisonsignedintolawabill establishingchicagoasthesitefortheexposition.thebillprovidedfortwoallmalegoverningbodiescalledthenationalcommissionandthechicagodirectoryto presideoverthedevelopmentandexecutionoftheexposition. 24 Anumberof wealthyandinfluentialchicagobusinessmenwereappointedtotheseboards.also includedinthebillwasanamendmentthatestablishedtheboardoflady 24Theseorganizations,theNationalCommissionandtheDirectory,hadmajorconflictsintheearly monthsofplanningbecauseofalackofcommunication.eventually,theboardofcontrolwas createdtomediatethedisputes.

14 10 Managers,tobeappointedbytheNationalCommission. 25 Itspurposewasto overseeallmatterspertainingtowomen sworkattheexposition.thisrecognition ofwomen sabilitytocontributetotheplanningoftheexpositionwaslargelydueto thelobbyingeffortsofseveralprominentwomensuchassusanb.anthonyand MyraBradwell,thoughtheyhadhopedtosecureappointmentsofwomentothe NationalCommissionandtheDirectory,nottheestablishmentofaseparateand sex segregatedboard. 26 Women sparticipationintheadministrationoftheexpositionwasan indicatoroftheirincreasinginfluenceinthepublicsphere;however,individual womenhadverydifferentviewsonjustwhichroleswomenshouldpursueinthat publicsphere.thesedifferentviewsstemmedlargelyfromdifferentideologies thatdevelopedoutofdifferentsocialbackgrounds.whiletheauxiliarycamefrom wealthyupperclassfamilies,theisabellasconsistedofmiddleclassprofessional women. 27 Thedebatesbetweenthesetwogroupsofwomenthreatenedthe stabilityofboard,buteventuallytheviewsoftheauxiliarywonthedebatethrough theirgreatereconomic,social,andpoliticalinfluence. ThiswasthefirstmomentinAmericanhistorythatwomenhadaformal, institutionalizedroleintheplanningandexecutionofgovernmenttasks;toserve asamemberoftheboardofladymanagerswastoparticipateinasingular momentinamericanwomen shistory.whenthechicagofaircorporationchose 25Weimann,33. 26Ibid.,36. 27The ChicagoWomen sauxiliary willbereferredtothroughoutassimply theauxiliary. The womenofthequeenisabellaassociation willbereferredtoas Isabellas andthe QueenIsabella Association assimply theassociation.

15 11 theirrepresentativestoserveonthechicagodirectoryattheendofapril,boththe IsabellasandtheAuxiliaryattemptedtowintheirfavor,aswellasthefavorofthe NationalCommission.Eachorganizationhadverydifferentvisionsofthewayin whichtheboardwouldfunction,whichcontributedtotheintensityofthe competitionbetweenthetwogroups.forseveralmonths,womenfromboth organizationssoughtrecognitionfromthemenservingonthenational Commissionandpetitionedforpoliciesthatwouldservetheirowninterests.While theauxiliarywomenlobbiedforaboardcomprisedofactivechicagowomen,the Isabellasarguedfornationalrepresentation. 28 Thesedifferingperspectiveswereduetothestructureoftheorganizations. WhiletheAuxiliarywomenwerelocatedonlyinthecityofChicago,theIsabellas hadawidespreadnetworkofwomenallacrosstheunitedstates.iftheboardof LadyManagersweretobeassembledfromthenationasawhole,thenitwasmuch morelikelythattheisabellaswouldreceivegreaternumbersontheboard. However,iftheBoardweremadeupofwomenfromChicago,itwasalmostasurety thattheauxiliarywomenwoulddominatetheseleadershiproles.thegroupthat wonthegreaternumberofseatsontheboardwouldbeabletoinfluencethe ideologicalframeworkandcontrolthewaythatwomenwererepresentedatthe Exposition.ThewomenoftheAuxiliaryhadbeenactiveinChicago sciviclifefor manyyears,andtheirhusbandswereamongthemostprominentmeninthecity. TheExpositionofferedthemaverypublicarenainwhichtoshowcasetheirtalents 28 The BoardofLadyManagers, ChicagoDailyTribune,June20,1890.

16 12 inmunicipaldecision makingbyservingonagovernmentaladministrativeboard. 29 Inaddition,theAuxiliarywomenwereabletoexploittheircloserelationshipswith themenoftheworld sfaircorporation,assuringtheirprominenceintheselection ofladymanagers.theisabellas,whodidnotholdsuchhighpositionsinthe Chicagocommunity,wereunlikelytohavethesamesocialrecognition,and thereforewerelesslikelytohavesignificantrepresentationontheboard. Thoughneitherorganizationreceivedanofficialresponse,theChicago TribunereportedinlateMay,1890thattheAuxiliarywomenhadbeenpromised leadershipoftheboardofladymanagersaswellasalargesumofmoneytoerect theirbuildingontheexpositiongrounds. 30 Refusingtobediscouraged,the Isabellasproposedamethodforanequitableselectionofthemembersofthe Board,proposingthatwomenfromeachstatevoteforseveralrepresentativesfrom whichtheappointmentswouldbemade. 31 ThiswouldmaketheBoard nationalin character andinvolvewomenfromtheentirenationintheplanningofthe Exposition. 32 Eventually,theirlobbyinghadsomeeffect;justbeforethe appointmentswereannounced,thomaspalmer,thepresidentofthenational Commission,statedthatheplannedtotreatbothorganizationsequally.Thoughhe hadnofamilialtiestothepowerfulpotterandberthapalmer,thecityofchicago s premierfamily,hisappointmentasthepresidentofthenationalcommission affordedhimapositionofinfluenceinthechicagocommunityforthedurationof 29Flanagan,57. 30FixingTheirPowers,ChicagoDailyTribune,May29, QueenIsabellaAssociation, BoardofLadyManagersShouldBeNational, June26,1890,Queen IsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 32 The BoardofLadyManagers, ChicagoDailyTribune,June20,1890.

17 13 theplanningoftheexposition.uponspeakingtopalmerinmid September,the ChicagoTribunereportedthatitwas probablethatthequeenisabellaassociation willgetitsthree[appointments],andthatthewomen sauxiliarywilllikelyget preciselythesamenumber,theotherthreebeingappointedoutsideofeither organization. 33 Severalweekslater,ThomasPalmerannouncedtheappointmentoftheLady Managers.Knowingthattheseappointmentswerelikelytoinciteangerin Chicago swomenfrombothorganizations,hemadehimselfscarceforthreeweeks, hopingthatinthattime,thefurorwoulddiedown. 34 ThoughtheCommissionhad promisedtotreatthetwoorganizationsfairlyandequally,thefinalappointments overwhelminglyfavoredtheauxiliarywomen.thereweretwoladymanagers fromeachstateandterritory,whichappearedtosatisfytherequestoftheisabellas. However,thewomennamedtothesepositionswererarelysympathetictothe Isabellas agenda;moreoftentheywereanalogoustotheauxiliarywomen.they werethemostprominentwomenfromtheirstateorterritory,whichoftenmeant thattheywereattheverytopoftheupperclassandwereunlikelytoadvocatefor theformalequalityofwomenthattheisabellassought.forexample,mary Trautman,aLadyManagerfromtheinfluentialstateofNewYork,wassincerein herbeliefthatwomenweretomaintaintraditionalstandardsofappropriate behaviorevenintheirdutiesincivicgovernment.shewroteletterstoanylady Managersthatshebelievedtobetoooutspokenintheirobjectionsandadvocated 33 ToBeEquallyDivided, ChicagoDailyTribune,September14, Palmer scoupd Etat,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28,1890.

18 14 harmoniousactionatalltimes,nomatterhowdivisiveanissuemaybe. 35 Many otherladymanagerssharedthissentiment;trautman sviewsbynomeans representedtheminorityofopinionamongtheboardmembers. TheappointmentsthatweremostdisappointingtotheIsabellaswerethe nineadditionalladymanagersfromchicago.ofthesenine,fourweredirectly affiliatedwiththeauxiliaryandonlyonewiththeisabellas;thisstateofaffairswas quiteadeparturefromthepromisedthreeappointmentsforeachorganizationthat hadbeenmadeonlytwoweeksearlier. 36 Theseseatsweresignificantbecausethe ChicagoLadyManagershadmorecloutthantheothersbymerevirtueofproximity; itwasimpossibleforoveronehundredladymanagerstoresideinchicagofortwo years.asaresult,themanagersinthecitywerethevoicesheardmostfrequently. Bothorganizationswerebitterlydisappointedatwhattheyperceivedtobe lowrepresentationoftheirrespectiveorganizations. 37 Whilethissentimentwas moreaccurateinthecaseoftheisabellas,theauxiliarywomenhadexpectedtheir socialconnectionstoguaranteethemamajorityonthechicagoboard.thishad failedtomaterializeastheyheldonlyfouroutofthenineseats;theywereunableto usethepowerofmajoritytoassuretheirviewswouldalwaysprevail.however, theauxiliarywasinamuchmorepowerfulpositionthantheisabellasbecausethey onlyneededoneextravoteforamajoritywin,asopposedtotheisabellas needfor 35Weinmann,97. 36ThoseaffiliatedwiththeAuxiliaryincludedJennieSanfordLewis,MarionMulligan,Myra Bradwell,andEmmaWallace.Thesewomenrepresentedsomeofthemostactiveclubwomenin Chicagoandweregenerallysatisfiedtoplayasubordinateandsex segregatedroleinthecity s publicspaces.infact,someofthesewomenwerethefirsttosuggesttheformationofawomen s auxiliarybranchtochicago sworld sfaircorporation. WomenandtheFair, ChicagoDaily Tribune,October19, Palmer scoupd Etat,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28,1890.

19 15 fouradditionalvotes.moreover,theirpoliticalconnectionsmadeitmuchmore likelythattheywouldbeabletoswayothermembersoftheboardtovoteinfavor ofmeasuressupportedbytheauxiliary.theauxiliaryhadessentiallybecome synonymouswiththeboardofladymanagers.onlyasmallminorityofwomen servingontheoverallboardidentifiedthemselvesasisabellas. 38 Ratherthanconcedingdefeatinthewakeofthispoliticalupset,theIsabellas chosetocontinueactivelycampaigningfortheircause.theyhostedsocialevents inthecitytoincreaseawarenessfortheirproposedstatueofqueenisabella. 39 Theyalsocontinuedtosendoutpamphletsencouragingmembershipinthe Associationandhighlightingthebenefitsofmembership. 40 Departmentswere formednotonlytoprovideprofessionalwomenaforumtodiscussissuesof significanceintheworkforceandtheirgreatercommunities,butalsotogivethese womenanopportunitytosupportoneanotherintheirendeavors. 41 Dividedinto art,science,literature,tradeoroccupation, thesedepartmentsweredesignedto promotetheinterestsofallmembers andestablishanorganizationthatwas connectedwiththecolumbianexpositiononlybecauseanopportunity[was] affordedofholdingaconference. 42 Itwasalwaysintendedthatthemeetingsatthe Expositionwouldbethefirstofmanyintheyearstocome.Thiswasbelievedtobe 38ThoughthereweresomewomenthatidentifiedthemselvesasIsabellasservingontheBoardof LadyManagers,thispaperwillrefertothemthroughoutasaseparateentity.Thisisduetothevery differentideologiesthatthesewomenheld,whichoftencreatedconflictswiththelargeproportion ofwomenservingontheboard. 39AReceptiontoMrs.Hooker,ChicagoDailyTribune,September28, ApplicationforMembership, ca ,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 41TheyHaveBut$300,000,ChicagoDailyTribune,October4, ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation, May11,1891,QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

20 16 importantinencouragingwomentocontinueonintheircareers,despiteresistance thattheymaymeet.thiscampaigningcontinuedthroughoutthemonthsleading uptotheexposition. 43 FirstMeetingoftheBoard ThefirstmeetingoftheBoardofLadyManagersconvenedonNovember18, OnNovember20,BerthaPalmerwonthenominationforPresidentbya unanimousvote.palmerheldconsiderableinfluenceinthecityofchicagowell beforebecomingthepresidentoftheboardofladymanagers.shewasa prominentmemberofthetwomostinfluentialwomen sclubsinchicago:the FortnightlyClubandtheChicagobranchoftheWomen schristiantemperance Union. 45 WhileshewasnotaregisteredmemberoftheAuxiliary,shedidshare theirideologyandbeliefsaboutwomen sroleinsociety.shewasabletouseher appointmenttothechicagoboardtoturnmanydecisionsinfavoroftheauxiliary women sobjectives,ashervoteusuallytippedthedecisioninfavoroftheauxiliary women.herinfluencewasintensifiedbythefactthatherhusband,potterpalmer, wasoneofthewealthiestandmostsuccessfulbusinessmeninthethreedecades 43VirginiaPopulistsNameaTicket,ChicagoDailyTribune,August4, TheOfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagersoftheWorld scolumbiancommission:the MinutesoftheBoardfromtheDateofitsOrganization,November19,1890,totheCloseofitsSecond Session,September9,1891,IncludingtheActofCongress,andInformationinRegardtotheActionof theworld scolumbiancommissionandofthechicagodirectoryofthecolumbianexposition (Chicago:Rand,McNally&Company,1891),43. 45SallyWebster,Eve sdaughter/modernwoman:amuralbymarycassatt(urbana,il:universityof IllinoisPress,2004),50.

21 17 leadinguptotheexposition.heownedsignificantamountsofvaluablerealestate andwastheproprietorofthefamouspalmerhouse,alavishhotelthatcateredto themostinfluentialfiguresoftheday,includingseveralunitedstatespresidents. 46 PotterPalmerhadalsobeennamedthesecondvice presidentofthedirectory,and servedasamemberofthecommitteeongroundsandbuildingsandthecommittee onfinearts. 47 Uponherelection,Palmerspoutedloftyidealsaboutunityinallthe Board sactions,saying, Wemust,however,seriouslyrealizethegreatnessoftheopportunitywhich hasbeengivenus Aboveallthingselse,harmoniousactionisnecessary. Thatisthefoundationwhichwemusthaveforthesuperstructurethatisto begraduallyerected,andwhichwetrustwillbethesuccessfulresultofour worktogether. 48 Thiskindofunitywasnotdemonstrated,however,inthenextorderof business,asthenominationfortheboard ssecretarywasmuchmorediscordant. Therewereatotalofsixnomineesfortheposition,butafterfourballots,the Isabella scandidate,phoebecouzins,wonthenecessaryvotesbyaveryslim margin. 49 TheseelectionssetthestagefortheconflictbetweentheIsabellasand themajorityoftheboard.whilecouzinswasadedicatedsuffragist,palmerwas muchmoreconcernedwiththeexpansionofwomen srolesasmothersandwives intothepublicrealmthanwithfightingforbothpoliticalandsocialequalitywith men. 50 Thetwowomenrepresentedthedistinctionbetweenthetraditional clubwomanandthenewwoman;whilebothactivelyparticipatedinthepublic 46 WomenandtheFair, ChicagoDailyTribune,October19, Weimann,42. 48MinutesoftheFirstSessionoftheBoardofLadyManagers,1890Nov Nov.26,Boardof LadyManagersCollection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 49TheOfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagers,59. 50Cordato,221.

22 18 sphere,theyhadverydifferentbeliefsregardingthepropermannerofdoingso. TheongoingdebatebetweenthesetwowomeneventuallyresultedCouzins forcibleremovalfromherposition.inretaliation,couzinsfiledalawsuitagainst theboardofladymanagers,anthelegalbattlethatensuedwasthemostpublic displayoftheclashbetweentheisabellasandtheboard,greatlyunderminingthe Board sauthorityinthepubliceye. 51 OneofthefirstdebatesthatemergedinthefirstBoardmeetingconcerned therepresentationofwomen swork.theisabellasbelievedthatwomen swork shouldbeexhibitedalongsidethatofmen,andalsoinsistedthatallworkthatwas presentedattheexpositionshouldbe accompaniedbyanaffidavitofthenumber ofwomenemployedinitsproduction sothatthecontributionsofwomeninall professionalfieldswouldberecognized. 52 Thisopinionwasinnowayunanimous amongthewomenoftheboard,asmostboardwomenwerenotyetreconciledto theideathatwomencouldhavefulfillingprofessionalcareers.thisreflectedtheir trenchantlyheldbeliefthatdespitetheirparticipationinmunicipalgovernment, thiswastobeanexpansionoftheirtraditionallyfeminineroles. 53 Aprofessional careerviolatedvictoriansexualmoresandwasthereforelessrespectablethan participatinginsocialreformactivities. ThemajorityoftheBoardwomenwantedtocreateadisplayofwomen s workintheirown,gendersegregatedbuildingtodemonstratetheprogresswomen 51BerthaPalmertoMrs.Felton,August25,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 52Untitled,October18,1890,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 53Flanagan,10.

23 19 hadmadeinthecenturiessincecolumbus discoveryoftheamericas. 54 This buildingwasalsodesignedtoserveastheadministrativecenterfortheboard duringtheexposition. 55 AttheendofthefirstsessionoftheBoard,thewomen submittedanapplicationforawoman sbuildingtotheexposition sdirectors,and wereeventuallyapproved.thedirectorsdidnotspecificallydictatethepurposeof thisbuilding,whichleftthedecisiontothediscretionoftheladymanagers. 56 As PalmerstartedtoconsolidateherpowerontheBoard,itwasincreasinglylikely thatthebuildingwouldbeusedforseparateexhibitionsofwomen swork. 57 Tosatisfyanydetractors,Palmeraskedthateachexhibitinthemain buildingsbelabeledwithaplacardstatingthepercentageoftheexhibitthatwas producedbywomen slabor.bydoingso,sheappearedtosatisfytheisabella s demandthatwomen sworkbegivenequalconsiderationasmen s,butpalmerwas stillabletoplacealltheexhibitsofwomen sworkinthebuildingconstructedby theboard.ultimately,however,hersuggestionwasfutile;therequestedstatistics wererarelyacquiredduetopoorsurveyresponse. 58 Thiscreatedanillusory impressionthatwomenwerenotinvolvedtoasignificantdegreeintheproduction ofmanyindustrialandcraftgoods.palmer ssuggestionperpetuatedtheperception thatwomenwerenotanimportantpartoftheamericaneconomy,butratherwere onlyinvolvedinwomen sclubmovementsacrossthecountry.eveninthissmallest 54 GreatProgressMadeThisWeek, ChicagoDailyTribune,November29, Weimann,51. 56Ibid.,54. 57ChicagoHerald,December27,1890;asquotedinWeimann,55. 58Webster,52.

24 20 ofcompromises,theisabellassawtherepresentationofwomenasindependent wageearnersintheexposition sexhibitsdisappear. ThePhoebeCouzinsAffair AtthefirstBoardmeeting,theIsabellashadwonthesmallvictoryofelecting oneoftheirmostprominentmembers,phoebecouzins,asboardsecretary.as such,itwascouzins primaryresponsibilitytorecordandpublishtheofficial minutesoftheboard.afterthefirstsession,thenoteswereindisarray;ittook Couzinsseveralweekstoputtheminorder.Intheweeksthatfollowed,Couzins wasobligatedtotravelduringtheholidaysandwasunabletocomeintotheoffice tofinisheditingtheminutes;however,shewasassuredthattheminutescouldnot bepublishedwithoutherwrittenconsent.whenshereturnedseveralweekslater, shediscoveredthatsomeofthereportsoftheby lawshadbeenaltered.ineach instance,thealterationsservedtoallowthepresidentgreaterdiscretionand influenceovertheboard sactivitieswhilesimultaneouslycurbingthepowersof thesecretary.whenotherladymanagerswereconsultedaboutthediscrepancies, amajorityagreedwithcouzins interpretation. 59 WhenCouzinsfinishededitingtheminuteswiththeoriginalby laws,which maintainedamoreequitabledistributionofpowerbetweenthepresidentandthe Secretary.However,beforetheminutescouldbeapprovedbythedesignated 59Weimann,75.

25 21 committees,couzinsfellillandwasbedriddenforseveralweeks.duringher absence,palmerworkedfeverishlytoensurethatcouzinswouldhaveverylittle practicalpowerontheboarduponherreturn.workingcloselywiththe Commission,Palmerwonspecialdispensationsthatenabledhertomake authoritativedecisionsincouzins stead. 60 WhenCouzinswasremovedfromherpositionbecauseofherinsistence thatpalmer sactivitieswereillegal,shesoughtlegalaction.couzinsstrongly believedthatshewasentitledtojustice,andnoamountofpleadingcouldenticeher todrophersuit.thisturnedintoaratherembarrassingaffairfortheboard,and forpalmerpersonally.forawomanthatvalued harmoniousaction aboveallelse, averypubliclawsuitwasherworstnightmare. 61 Eventually,Palmerwas vindicatedwhenthejudgethrewoutcouzins suitduetoinsufficientevidence,but shewouldalwaysremembertheincidentwithbitterness. PalmerwasespeciallyhurtbytheCouzinsaffairbecauseitviolatedher beliefsabouthowproperwomenshouldcomportthemselves.towardtheendof theconflict,sheexpressedherdisappointmentinotherwomen sbehavior,writing, Mygreatdesirewastopreventanymorequarrelsorevidenceofbadfeeling comingbeforethepublic.isupposethetruthis,thataswomencome forwardintopubliclife,theywillbeactuatedbyjustthesamemotivesas men,andshowthesamepersonalambitionsanddivideintoasmany factions;butatpresent,whileweareontrialandallworkingapparentlyfor thesamegoodcause,itseemsveryunwomanlytohavesomanyhard feelingsariseamongus,andsomanycontentionstosettle Weimann, MinutesoftheFirstSessionoftheBoardofLadyManagers,1890Nov Nov.26,Boardof LadyManagersCollection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 62BerthaPalmertoMrs.Logan,November3,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

26 22 Theviciousfightthatbrokeoutbetweenthetwogroupsofwomenhad demonstratednotonlytheirrespectivebeliefsaboutproperbehaviorforwomen, butalsotheincrediblestrengthofthosebeliefs.bothpalmerandcouzinsdisplayed greatdepthoffeelingthroughouttheconflict,indicatingthegreatsignificancethat thisdebatehadforthewaywomeninterpretedandunderstoodtheirownlives. PalmerConsolidatesHerPowers Inthefollowingmonths,Palmerlaunchedanefforttosecureherpositionas notonlythefigureheadoftheboard,butalsoasitsvoice.thiswasfairlyeasyfor hertoaccomplish.asmostoftheladymanagerswerefromdistantstatesand territories,therewereveryfewboardmembersinthecityofchicagoatanygiven time.manyoftheladymanagerswereheavilyreliantonthecommunicationsfrom Palmer sofficetostayinformedaboutthedecisionsandissuesfacingtheboard. TheonlyothersourceofinformationtheLadyManagershadwas newspapercoverage,butthenewscoverageoftheboard sactivitieswasobtained almostexclusivelyfrompalmerherself.thelocalandnationalpresssourced PalmeralmostexclusivelyasaresultofherstatusasPresidentandtheBoard sde factoleader.intheeventthatthenewspapercoveragewasnottoherliking, PalmertookfurtherstepstoensurethattheBoardwaspaintedinaflatteringlight. SheappearstohaveusedhersocialcloutinthecityofChicagotoinfluencethetone oftheeditorialcontentinseveralmajorchicagonewspapers.inalettertomrs.

27 23 Shakespeare,PalmerclearlyreferstoherdisapprovalregardingtheChicago Herald snewscoveragethatspokeinfavoroftheisabellas,saying, wehavetalked withtheeditorandhaveshownthemhowwrongtheirimpressionswere,andhow absurdthepretentionsofanyotherbodyofwomentooccupythisfield. 63 It appearsthatthisconversationwaseffective,asshelaterwritestojasperscott,the editoroftheherald,stating, Iamverymuchgratifiedatthefriendlypositionnow takenbytheheraldandithankyouforyourassurancethatitwillcontinue. 64 EvenwhenPalmerwasoutofthecountryonherEuropeantour,Scottcontinuedto speakoftheboardfavorably. 65 Herinfluenceoverhiseditorialcontentwasso greatthathewaseasilyswayedtochangehisinterpretationofwomen s participationintheexposition.hewasafraidtopublishanythingthatmightbe interpretedasnegative,orevenambivalent,evenwhilepalmerwasmorethanan oceanaway. Therewaslittleopportunityforothers,includingtheIsabellas,toreportthe activitiesoftheboardorthepresidentinamannerthatwasunfavorabletopalmer. ThishegemonyofcommunicationeffectivelyestablishedPalmerastheonly availablesourceofinformation,whichmadethenon localmembersoftheboardof LadyManagerswhollydependentonhertounderstandtheimportantissuesthat camebeforethem.thisputtheisabellasatadistinctdisadvantagewhenthetwo factionscameintoconflict,astheyhadverylimitedcommunicationwiththelady 63BerthaPalmertoMrs.Shakespeare,January24,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 64BerthaPalmertoMr.Scott,February7,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 65BerthaPalmertoMr.Scott,August3,1891,BoardofLadyMangersCollection,ChicagoHistorical Society.

28 24 Managers.TheIsabellashadfewresourcestoinformBoardmembersoftheirown viewsthatwerecontrarytopalmer s.theyfounditdifficulttoincreasetheirbase ofsupportwhentheboardwasnotinsession. Palmeralsousedherinfluencetoundermineanyone,notjustjournalists, thatmightputforthadifferentinterpretationofevents.suspiciousoftheisabellas, sheremainedcautiousinherdealingswiththeladymanagersthatshedidnot knowwell,nevergivingoutsensitiveinformationuntilshewasabsolutelysureof theirloyalties.allofthisintrigueservedtofurthercementpalmer spositionasthe Board sfigurehead,whichensuredgreatercontrolovertheboard sreputation. Knowingthatshewasapartofasingularmomentforwomen,Palmerjealously guardedthelegacythatwouldberecordedinhistoricalaccountsoftheexposition. SheencouragedtheLadyManagersthatsharedherideologicalbeliefstoferretout whichmembersoftheboardhadbeenwonoverbytheisabellas.tooneofher closestallies,palmerwrote, Inyourcorrespondencewithanyoftheladiesofourboardcanyoufindout whetherornottheyaremembersofthequeenisabellasocietywithout tellingthemthatiwishtoknow?ifyoushouldmentionitinafriendlyletter toanywithwhomyouaresufficientlyacquainted,andsendmetheresulting information,ishallbegreatlyobliged. 66 Thiswasaccomplishedthroughsubterfuge;Palmermarkedallofthis correspondenceconfidential,ratherthanrevealingherintenttodiscoverwhich BoardmemberswereaffiliatedwiththeIsabellas. 67 Sheoftenaccusedthe Associationof antagonizingtheboardofladymanagers andeveninherofficial 66BerthaPalmertoMrs.Shakespeare,February6,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 67BerthaPalmertoMrs.Cotton,August5,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

29 25 correspondence,heldallofitsmembersincontempt. 68 InPalmer sview,the Isabellasdidnotfulfilltheexpectationsforproperfemalebehavior,andasaresult, theyneededtobeputintheirplace. OncePalmerhadestablishedcompletepowerovertheactivitiesofthe Board,sheusedherinfluencetounderminetheachievementoftheIsabellas goals. EachtimeshementionedtheQueenIsabellaAssociationinhercorrespondence,her disdainandcontemptfortheirideologyandmethodsofraisingsupportare unmistakable.sheheldthemtobemorethanasimplenuisance;shebelievedthat theiractivitieswouldeventuallyleadtoareversalofthegainsthattheboardhad beenabletoachieve.inoneletter,palmergoessofarastosay, Idon'tknowthatI wouldquitefeelthatwecouldtrustanyonethatisorhasbeenamemberofthe IsabellaAssociation. 69 TheAmericangovernment sacknowledgementofthe abilitiesofwomeninthepublicspherewassignificant;berthapalmersoughtto protectthereputationoftheladiesoftheboardatwhatevercostnecessary.ifthis meanttheexclusionofthequeenisabellaassociationinallboardactivities,she wasmorethanwillingtouseherinfluencetounderminetheireverymove. Oneexampleofthiswillingnesstotakedrasticmeasurestounderminethe Isabellas influencewashersuccessfulattempttoremoveanymentionofthe IsabellasfromtheofficialhistoryoftheBoard.MaryNewburyAdamswas commissionedtowritetheofficialhistoryoftheboardforabooktobesoldduring theexposition;shegavethepublisherpermissiontochangeanythingthatpalmer 68BerthaPalmertoMrs.Chetlain,February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 69BerthaPalmertoMrs.Henrotin,ca.February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection, ChicagoHistoricalSociety.

30 26 didnotlike. 70 Whenitwasreadyforprinting,Adamswasabletoviewthe manuscriptinitsfinalformat.shewasshockedbythechangesthathadbeenmade. TheIsabellasandtheireffortswerecompletelyabsentfromthetext.She immediatelywrotetoberthapalmer,indicatingthatshebelievedthistobean injustice,nomatterhowbothersometheassociationhadbeen.palmerarguedthat theauxiliarywomenwere amuchfinerbodyofwomen thantheisabellasand that theymakemanyabsurdclaimswhichwouldmisleadanyonenotacquainted withthefacts. 71 SheindicatedthattherewasnoneedfortheIsabellastobe mentionedinthetext;theyhadcontributednothingtothesuccessesoftheboard, andhad,infact,impededitssuccessateveryturn. 72 Eventually,Adamsrequested thathernameberemovedfromthetextbecauseshefelttheworkhadlostits historicalintegrity. 73 ThisisonlyoneexampleofthewaysinwhichPalmersoughttocontrolthe flowofinformationtothepublicbyabusingherpositionofpoweraspresidentof theboard;theofficialminuteswerealsoeditedinasimilarfashion. 74 Thereare onlyahandfulofmentionsofthequeenisabellaassociationintheofficialminutes, despitethefactthatphoebecouzinswastheoriginalauthorofaboutonethirdof thedocument. 75 Thementionsthatarepresentaremerelyinvitationstosocial events;theseselectiveinclusionsmaketheisabellasappeartobelittlemorethana 70Weimann,70. 71BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,March27,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 72BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,March27, BerthaPalmertoMaryAdams,April4,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 74OfficialMinutesoftheBoardofLadyManagers,[ca ],BoardofLadyManagers Collection,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 75OfficialManualoftheBoardofLadyManagers.

31 27 socialclub,similartotheclubsthattheauxiliarywomencreatedforthemselves.it isnowonderthattheirorganizationhasdisappearedalmostentirelyfromthe historicaldiscourseontheexpositionandtheboardofladymanagers.the recordsthatarecommonlyconsultedtodeterminethehistoricalcontextandto betterunderstandtheeventsandideologiesoftheexpositionhavenoreferenceto theforgottenassociation.allofthiswascompletedinthenameofsavingthe Board sreputation. InanattempttofurthercementherpowerovertheBoard,Palmertookit uponherselftoinfluencethedecisionsofthecommissiondespitehersubordinate statustothatorganization. 76 Ironically,throughoutherdealingswithhermale superiors,palmerusesratheraggressivelanguage.whilespendinghertime criticizingandunderminingtheisabellasforadoptingamoreaggressiveapproach totheiractivism,palmerviolatesherownconservativevisionofproper womanhoodbyspeakingtohermalesuperiorsinaninsubordinatemanner.she adoptsamoremasculinemanagementstylewhileadvocatingallthewhilethat women sproperroleinsocietyistofulfilltheirrolesasnurturersandsupportersof theirstrongermalecounterparts.hertacticsarejustified,however,becauseshe believesherworkisfurtheringthestatusofwomeninamericansociety. MostofthementhathadbeennamedtotheDirectoryandtheCommission wereacquaintedwiththepalmers,orattheveryleastwerewellawareoftheir socialprominence.berthapalmerfrequentlyexploitedtheseconnectionstowin thesupportofthemendirectingtheadministrationoftheexposition.withthe 76BerthaPalmertoMr.Butler,February2,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

32 28 supportofthesemen,shewasabletoexertgreatauthorityincarryingouther plansfortheexposition.inoneletter,palmeracknowledgesacommissioner s authoritytoappointanotherladymanagerinlieuofonewhohaspassedaway. However,shespecificallywritesthelettertopressurehimintoappointing a worthysuccessor andtourgehimtoconcludethematterassoonaspossible.her toneiscertainlynotoneofasubordinaterequestingafavorofhersuperior;onthe contrary,shegivestheimpressionofhavingtheupperhand. 77 PalmerevenwentsofarastodictateproceduretoDanielBurnham,the ChiefArchitectoftheExposition.UponhearingthatBurnhamhadselectedan architectforthewoman sbuildingthatpalmerbelievedtobeunsuitable,she immediatelyconveyedherdispleasureandnotifiedhimofanalternateplan. Knowingthatshehadsignificantrelationshipswithmeninhighplaces,shecasually mentionedthat asthedirectors,commissionersandeveryoneelsefavorsour planandarewillingtoshowusthiscourtesy Ithinkthereshouldbenoquestion astotheresult. 78 Herproposalwasalmostimmediatelyadopted.Afteraseriesof similarpowerplays,thechicagonewsreportedthatthecommissionhadentrusted Palmer withalmostautocraticpower whentheboardwasnotinsession, authorizinghertomakeimportantdecisionsonbehalfofover100ladymanagers andtheiralternates BerthaPalmertoMr.Butler,February2, BerthaPalmertoJohnRoot,January13,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 79ChicagoNews,April4,1891,asquotedinWeimann,86.

33 29 TheQueenIsabellaPavilion AtthebeginningofFebruary1891,theIsabellas plansfortheirown pavilionontheexpositiongroundsappearedtobewellontheirwaytobecoming realized.includedintheirarchitecturalplanswereahospitalandakindergarten sothatallexpositionvisitorshadtheopportunitytoobservetwoofthemost popularprofessionsforwomen.therewerealsotobenumerousofficeand committeeroomstoserveasatemporaryheadquartersfor anydepartmentofart, science,literature,trade,oroccupation. 80 Theywerereadytomoveforwardwith theconstructionofthebuilding. TheofficersandothersignificantmembersoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation wereinvitedtodanielburnham sofficetoselectalocationfortheirpavilion. However,oncetheyhadselectedasite,theirrequestwasshuffledfromone committeeofmentoanother.eachcommitteeclaimedthattheylackedtheproper authoritytogranttherequest. 81 Ultimately,eachofthecommitteesdeclaredthat allproposalsconcerningwomenandwomen sworkweretobepassedthroughthe Board;uponhearingthis,theIsabellaswithdrewtheirrequest. 82 Becausethe Boardwasnotinsession,thedecisionwouldbeplacedinthehandsofBertha Palmer,whocontrolledtheday to dayaffairsinthesteadofthefullboard,oreven theboard sexecutivecommittee.theisabellashopedtopresenttheirrequestto 80QueenIsabellaPavilion,ca ,QueenIsabellaAssociationPamphlets,ChicagoHistorical Society. 81ReviewofWorld sfairwork,chicagodailytribune,february7, PowerforLadyManagers,ChicagoDailyTribune,February5,1891.

34 30 theentireboardatthenextfullsession. 83 TheyrefusedtoallowPalmerthe satisfactionofdenyingtheirapplicationfortheisabellapavilionandhopedtofinda morefavorablereceptionoftheirproposalamongthemembersofthefullboard. InearlyMarch1891,rumorsstartedtocirculatethattheQueenIsabella Associationwasbankruptandcouldnotaffordtobuildthepromisedpavilion.The ChicagoTribunereported, whilethezealandenthusiasmoftheprojectorsare great,theavailablebuildingfundisamerebagatelleandthethousandsofdollars necessarytoconstructthepavilionarenotforthcoming. 84 Reportsaboundedthat theassociationhadbarelyenoughmoneytocontinueday to dayaffairsandthat theorganizationwasinsolvent. 85 ThepublicfaithintheAssociationwasshaken despitetheisabellas vehementdenialsofthisdirefinancialoutlookanda reassertionthattheisabellapavilionwouldbeconstructed. 86 Interestingly,BerthaPalmerappearstohavebeenthesourceofthese assertions;weeksbeforetherumorsappearedinthepublic,palmer s correspondencereflectedawarenessoftheisabellas supposedfinancialtroubles. 87 DuetothediscrepancybetweenthedatethatPalmerindicatedherknowledgeof thescandalandthedatewhenthenewswasrevealedthroughthemedia,itislikely thatpalmerherselfwasthesourceoftherumors. 88 Thisscandalmarkedthe beginningoftheassociation sdecline.withtheirreputationtarnished,theyhad 83WithdrawstheApplication,ChicagoDailyTribune,February13, ItHasOnlythePlans,ChicagoDailyTribune,March6, AccomplishedDuringtheWeek,ChicagoDailyTribune,March7, TheQueenIsabellaAssociation,ChicagoDailyTribune,March20, BerthaPalmertoMrs.Chetlain,February18,1891,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety. 88BerthaPalmertoMrs.AugustusWilson,April9,1892,BoardofLadyManagersCollection,Chicago HistoricalSociety.

35 31 verylittleinfluenceindetermininghowwoman sworkwouldberepresentedatthe Exposition. Inthefollowingmonths,theQueenIsabellaAssociationcontinuedtheir attemptstorebuildtheirreputation.theypersistedinsendingoutcirculars espousingloftygoalsofapermanentnetworkofwomenaidingoneanotherintheir struggleforequality. 89 TheAssociationalsopassedaresolutiondenyingrumors thattheisabellas intentionsweretoantagonizetheboard.theyarguedthatthey hadnothingtodowiththe unfortunatedissensionbetweenthechiefofficers and thattheyhad onlygoodwishesforthesuccessofallenterprisesundertakenbythe BoardofLadyManagers. 90 Thestatementassertedthatthoughtheydidnotseek toirritatetheboard,theywouldcontinuetopursuetheirowngoals,regardlessof theboard sstance.inassertingtheirrighttovoiceandadvancetheirownopinions, theisabellaswererejectingpalmer sinterpretationofproperwomanhoodas harmoniousandcompletelywithoutdiscord.instead,theypolitelyinsistedthatit wasappropriateandexpectedthatwomenwouldnotalwaysagreeonevery matter.theisabella sassertionthattheirbeliefswerejustasvalidasthoseheldby PalmercreatedevengreaterantagonismamongPalmer sallies,andthistradingof accusationsledtotheclimaxoftheconflictbetweenthetwogroups:thesecondfull meetingoftheboardofladymanagersonseptember2, ArtDepartmentoftheQueenIsabellaAssociation,Untitled,[ca.1891],QueenIsabellaAssociation Pamphlets,ChicagoHistoricalSociety. 90 ItIsDisposedtobePeaceful, ChicagoDailyTribune,April25,1891.